The Chinese Civil War

• Tasks
• Background
• Teachers' notes
• External links
• Connections to curriculum

In 1940s China, two parties were fighting for power. On one side was the ruling nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) party, led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. On the other was the opposing Chinese Communist Party (CCP), led by Mao Zedong. 

During the Second World War, both parties banded together to fight off Japanese occupation. However, after the war, peace talks between the two quickly broke down. The fighting between the two parties became ongoing before escalating into civil war.  

The civil war was eventually won by the CCP in 1949. Mao declared the founding of the People’s Republic of China on 1 October 1949. Chiang Kai-shek, meanwhile, fled to the island of Taiwan, where he continued to rule. 

Use the British government sources in this lesson to explore the complicated reasons behind the war and its outcome, including party ideology, propaganda, fighting tactics, and power struggles. 

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Tasks

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Background

The Chinese Civil War in the period from 1945 to 1949, was a monumental conflict between two major political forces in China: The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party, also known as the Kuomintang (KMT). This was a post-war clash that eventually led to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. 

This prolonged struggle for control over China’s future emerged after the Second World War, when the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Nationalist Party – or Kuomintang (KMT) – had temporarily united to prevent Japanese occupation. The ideological differences and power struggles between the parties that had existed before the war soon resurfaced, leading to intense confrontation. Following the war, the weak alliance between them crumbled, and both sides resumed hostilities with the aim of establishing their dominance over China. The United States, which had provided substantial support to the KMT during the war, made efforts to mediate between both sides, hoping to prevent an all-out conflict. Nevertheless, the deep-seated differences and longstanding grievances between the CCP, led by Mao Zedong, and the KMT, led by Chiang Kai-shek, proved insurmountable. 

The Chinese Civil War can be divided into three distinct phases.  

Stage one (1945–1946): The start of large-scale military operations. During this period, the CCP launched successful offensives in various regions, based on support from the peasantry and rural areas. However, the KMT faced internal challenges, including corruption, inflation, and a loss of popular support. These factors contributed to the CCP’s early advances.  

Stage two (1947–1948): This period saw a major shift in the balance of power. The CCP launched a strategic offensive, employing guerrilla warfare tactics [defined below] and encircling major cities held by the KMT. The CCP’s military successes during this period, combined with its effective mobilisation of the population, drove the party’s rise and further weakened the KMT’s position. 

Stage three (1948–1949): This phase marked the CCP’s decisive push toward victory. The CCP launched a series of offensives, capturing key cities and regions such as Shenyang, Jinan, and Chengdu. By late 1949, the CCP had effectively established control over most of mainland China, prompting Chiang Kai-shek and the remains of the KMT to retreat to the island of Taiwan. 

There are different perspectives on the causes of the Civil War between the KMT and the CCP. 

For example, the KMT strongly opposed the ideology of communism adopted by the CCP. They viewed communism as a dangerous and subversive ideology that threatened social stability, private property, and individual freedoms. The ruling groups that controlled the KMT included the old landlord class and existing officials who were often accused of corruption. They feared that the CCP’s ultimate goal was to establish a communist state and eradicate their influence.  

The CCP, meanwhile, gained significant support from the rural population, particularly peasants. They promised land reform, improved living conditions, and a voice for the marginalised rural masses. The CCP’s agricultural policies appealed to much of the population in agrarian China. 

The fall of the Nationalist government led to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949, with Mao Zedong as its leader. Meanwhile, the KMT government in Taiwan continued to claim legitimacy as the rightful government of China, establishing the Republic of China there. 

The Chinese Civil War had far-reaching consequences for China’s political, social, and economic landscape. It resulted in the expulsion of the KMT from mainland China and the division of the country into the PRC and the Republic of China in Taiwan. The conflict also marked a turning point in China’s foreign relations, as the PRC pursued a different path from the KMT-led government in Taiwan. The Chinese Civil War left an indelible imprint on the history of modern China and continues to shape its trajectory to this day. 

 

Guerilla Warfare: operations carried on by small independent forces, generally in the rear of the enemy, with the objective of harassing, delaying, and disrupting military operations of the enemy.

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Teachers' notes

This is the second in a planned series of three lessons on 20th century Chinese history. You can read the first part here: May Fourth Movement 1919 

This lesson looks at the Chinese Civil War after the end of the Second World War until the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in October 1949. It can also be used to support the study of Mao’s China (1945-76) as well as the overall development of China in the 19th and 20th centuries. 

Teachers could use the illustration image of this lesson as a Starter Activity. 

This is a Chinese postage stamp commemorating the People’s Liberation Army and the Chinese Civil War from 1927 to 1949. 

• What does this image reveal about the Chinese Civil War? 
• Why was it produced? 
• After the lesson, review how this source relates to those you have examined. 

It is worth highlighting the issue of perspective during this lesson. Each of these sources come from a British government perspective. Most of the sources used in this lesson come from the Foreign Office and the War Office. It is worth discussing with students why this is the case. What other sources of information could be used on this topic? 

Sometimes, British government officials are reporting on or quoting sources from either the Kuomintang or Chinese Communist Party, allowing students to hear from those perspectives as well. Ask students to consider: Why does The National Archives have these sources? How does the perspective of the source affect how we interpret it? 

For GCSE students, teachers may wish to reduce the number of sources in the lesson in quantity or length or assign small groups to work on different sources for students to feedback to the class. 

Discussion questions:

• What were the different factors that helped the CCP win the war? Consider both the how and why. 
• What might have happened if the KMT won the war instead?  
• How do you think the Chinese Civil War is viewed (a) in the West (b) within China? Why is it important to explore different perspectives and interpretations in history? 

Sources

Banner image: Chinese postage stamp commemorating the People’s Liberation Army during the Chinese Civil War from 1927 to 1949. M&N / Alamy Stock Photo

Source 1: Map: ‘Areas of Communist Activity in China’ from Harrison Forman: ‘Report from Red China’, June 1945. Catalogue ref: WO 208/4398 

Source 2a: Telegram reporting on an editorial called ‘Without Democracy There Will Not Be Peaceful Reconstruction’ in the Yenan Paper ‘Emancipation Daily’, commemorating the 34th anniversary of the Chinese Revolution of 1911. Catalogue ref: WO 208/4398 

Source 2b: Translated article called ‘Inside Yenan’ written by a member of the Overseas Chinese department in the Kuomintang Headquarters, sent for publication in The New Republic, a newspaper published by the KMT in Canada. August 1944. Catalogue ref: WO 208/485 

Source 3a: An English translation of a report on an interview with Mao from July-August 1944 in the newspaper Ta Kung Pao. Catalogue ref: WO 208/485 

Source 3b: Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong at the Chongqing negotiations, a series of negotiations between the KMT and CCP from 29 August to 10 October 1945. Wikimedia Commons 

Source 3c: Telegram from H. Seymour, British Ambassador to China, to the British Foreign Office on 31 October 1945. Catalogue ref: WO 208/4398 

Source 3d: Dispatch in English on 3 November 1945 in which KMT Minister of Information K.C. Wu dismisses charges by the CCP. Catalogue ref: WO 208/4389 

Source 4: Report entitled ‘METHODS OF DISTINGUISHING GUERRILLAS FROM CIVILIANS’ by the Japanese army, 1943-45. Catalogue ref: WO 208/4398 

Source 5a:  Extract from a translated New Years message from Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek printed in China Newsweek, a British bulletin, 6 January 1945. Catalogue ref: FO 371/75736 

Source 5b: Article titled ‘British Seek US Help for Plan to Contain Chinese Communism’ by Benjamin Welles, a foreign correspondent for The New York Times, 6 January 1949. Catalogue ref: FO 371/75736 

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External links

Chinese Civil War, 1946-1950 
Resource from The Wilson Center Digital Archive including useful tools such as a timeline and visualisations. 

Post-war Thailand and the onset of the Cold War in Southeast Asia 
Blog from The National Archives looking at Thailand’s role in the Cold War in Asia around the time of the Chinese Civil War. 

Legacies of Chinese indenture aboard the Empire Windrush in 1948 
Blog from The National Archives exploring the history of the Chinese community in the Caribbean and as part of the Windrush generation. 

The National Archives blog posts about China
Blog posts from The National Archives exploring different facets of Chinese history.

Chinese Labour Corps on the Western Front 
Blog from The National Archives exploring the British recruitment of Chinese labourers for the First World War. 

Connections to curriculum

Key stage 4

Edexcel GCSE History:

• Mao’s China, 1945–76 

OCR GCSE History:

• International Relations: the changing international order 1918–1975 
• China 1950–1981: The People and the State 

Key stage 5

AQA A-level History:

• The Transformation of China, 1936–1997 

Edexcel A-level History:

• The making of modern China, 1860–1997 
• Mao’s China, 1949–76 

OCR A-level History:

• China and its Rulers 1839–1989 
• Japan 1853–1937 

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