Citizens of empire
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The 19th century was the 'golden
age' of the British empire. New lands acquired included Singapore
(1819), Hong Kong (1841), Cyprus (1878) and Burma (1886). British
imperial expansion in Africa included Sierra Leone (1787), Cape
Colony (1814), the Gold Coast (1874), Egypt (occupied in 1882),
Rhodesia (1889) and British East Africa (Kenya) in 1894. |
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Indian officers, 1902
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British influence in the white-dominated
territories of Australia, Canada and New Zealand and in the
vast lands of India - the 'jewel' in the imperial crown - was
also consolidated during the 19th century. By 1905 the British
empire was the largest empire in the world, with an estimated
population of 345 million people. |
Who ruled?
Given the British empire's vast size and complexity, no attempt
was made to run it as a single political and administrative
unit during the 19th century. However, some historians have
highlighted the differences between 'formal' and 'informal'
empire - that is to say between territories ruled directly
by the British government and territories where Britain had
economic and political influence without formal control.
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Others have pointed to the differences between
areas populated by established communities of white British
settlers and areas gained by conquest and annexation. In Australia,
Canada, New Zealand and South Africa, Britain allowed the local
white elites increasing control of their internal affairs. By
1910, they had all been granted 'dominion' status as self-governing
colonies within the British empire. |
In contrast, the political rights granted to black
colonial subjects in newer imperial possessions (such as those
in Africa) were minimal. Even in India, where some local princes
were given a degree of independence, British military and political
power was ultimately decisive. |
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Discrimination in Cape Colony, 1901
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Elitist opinions
Until as late as the 1870s, many British people saw formal
imperial commitments as - in the words of the Tory politician
Benjamin Disraeli - 'millstones round our neck'. But by the
late Victorian era, the cause of empire was much more popular.
Writers and politicians gained public support for a more aggressive
brand of imperialism and imperial themes in newspapers, books,
postcards and songs became an important part of popular culture.
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The
motives of British imperialists were mixed. Some were attracted
by the economic benefits of empire, which provided access to
new markets, trading routes and sources of raw materials. Church
missionaries saw it as their duty to 'civilise' parts of the
world untouched by Christianity. |
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'The flag that rules the world', 1900 Document
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Fundamentally, the attitudes of many
Britons were heavily influenced by racial stereotypes and prejudices.
The writer Rudyard Kipling stated in 1899 that it was the 'white
man's burden' to rule over the 'sullen peoples' of the world.
Cecil Rhodes, a passionate imperialist, believed that the British
empire should be run and ultimately populated by members of
the 'Anglo-Saxon' race. |
Imperial rule provoked a variety of responses
among British colonial subjects. Local English-speaking elites
were needed by Britain to ensure the smooth running of government
affairs. Even when pushing for greater control of their own
affairs, these elites had close ties with Britain as the 'mother
country'. |
Imperial acquisitions, 1915
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Nevertheless, imperial rule offered few benefits
to the colonised, and local cultures were often marginalised.
Women and non-whites had few, if any, political rights and rarely
made economic gains. Dissatisfaction with British rule during
the Victorian era occasionally led to serious unrest - most
notably among indigenous troops (sepoys) in India in 1857 and
among descendants of Dutch settlers (Boers) in South Africa
during the South African War (Boer War) in 1899-1902. |
The Irish question
The most troublesome unrest for Britain was
perhaps in Ireland. The Act of Union passed in 1800 (which
came into effect in 1801) created a new constitutional entity,
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Many people
in Ireland saw this as a colonial takeover, and some British
administrators in Ireland regarded their Celtic neighbours
as an inferior race.
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'United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland', 1801 Document
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'Taking the (Irish) bull by the horns.'
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The union was soon challenged by political, religious and
social problems. In the 1840s Catholic politicians such as
Daniel O'Connell began to campaign for Irish 'home rule' (self-government
within the framework of the British empire). Worst of all
was the potato famine (1845-9), which killed approximately
1.1 million Irish people. Many of those who survived emigrated,
particularly to the USA . As a result, the population of Ireland
decreased drastically in the second half of the 19th century.
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From the 1860s onwards, the 'Irish
question' was a permanent headache for the British government.
Groups such as the Home Rule League (founded in 1870) and the
Irish Land League (founded in 1879) used constitutional means
to push for better land and political rights for the Irish population.
Irish nationalist groups - such as the Fenian Brotherhood and,
later, Sinn Fein - were prepared to use violence to achieve
their more radical aim of a united and independent Ireland.
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Complaint from American consul
in Dublin, 1866 Document
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Ireland also divided Britain's
two main political parties, the Liberals and the Conservatives.
The Conservative party (and a minority of 'Liberal Unionists')
strongly opposed home rule. The Liberal Party under the leadership
of William Gladstone, which had previously passed Acts reforming
Irish land rights (1870, 1881) and limiting the power of the
Irish Protestant Church (1869), supported home rule from the
mid 1880s onwards. However, three successive Home Rule Bills
were defeated in Parliament in 1886, 1893 and 1912. During this
period opinions on both sides hardened. When the First World
War broke out in 1914, Ireland was on the brink of civil war.
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