American Revolution: Early conflicts

• Tasks
• Background
• Teachers' notes
• External links
• Connections to curriculum

The first battles of the American Revolution took place on the 18 and 19 April 1775, at Lexington and Concord near Boston in Massachusetts, in what later became known as a ‘shot heard round the world’. Despite attempts at reconciliation by the colonists, conflict continued throughout 1775 and 1776.

This lesson explores the skirmishes that happened before the Declaration of Independence was issued on 4 July 1776. Use documents from The National Archives’ collections to consider why war broke out in 1775 and why hostilities continued until the colonies declared independence from Great Britain.

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Tasks

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Background

Following the introduction of the Intolerable Acts in 1774, representatives of each of the colonies assembled in Philadelphia in what became known as the Continental Congress to debate how best to respond to British actions. They suggested non-importation agreements to pressure the British into repealing the legislation.

At the same time as their representatives were attempting a peaceful resolution, colonists across the continent were also gathering arms and ammunition in anticipation of an escalation of the conflict. It was in Massachusetts that these tensions first descended into open fighting. The Intolerable Acts of 1774 had dissolved the Massachusetts Assembly and led to an increase in soldiers stationed in the colony, which had caused ongoing friction between the British soldiers and the American inhabitants. The colony was a powder keg ready to explode.

The British saw the gathering of munitions as a direct threat to the preservation of order. On the 18 April 1775, 800 British soldiers moved from Boston to destroy a supply of munitions being held at Concord. However, they were blocked on the way by the Lexington militia. Somewhere in the crowd, the first shot was fired. This encouraged British soldiers to open fire on the Lexington militia, pushing through the crowd and ultimately destroying the munitions at Concord. However, they faced further attacks on their return to Boston, and required reinforcements from a relief column close by.

After news of these skirmishes at Lexington and Concord, colonists across New England moved to besiege Boston and help protect the harbour from British occupation. On 17 June 1775, British soldiers attacked those colonists that had occupied a hill overlooking the city. Whilst they successfully dispersed the militias, they suffered significant casualties in what became known as the Battle of Bunker Hill, creating concerns that the war would not be an easy victory. Whilst certainly the site of many of the early conflicts, the fighting was not exclusive to Massachusetts: in May, rebels had captured Fort Ticonderoga in New York, and they pushed forward into Quebec to put pressure on the British forces.

Much like the first meeting of delegates in 1774, however, the Second Continental Congress, convening from May 1775, attempted to pursue peaceable methods even after fighting broke out. On the 5 July, they signed the ‘Olive Branch Petition’, in a last attempt to prevent war and assure George III that they remained his loyal subjects. This was accompanied by a ‘Declaration of the Causes and Necessity for Taking Up Arms’, which justified to a broader audience the need for armed resistance. However, this was met with a declaration by George III on 23 August, asserting that the colonies were in open rebellion and therefore no longer protected as British subjects. The colonists realised that reconciliation would not be possible and began to move closer to independence.

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Teachers' notes

All documents are provided with transcripts with difficult terms defined in square brackets. Students can work through the questions individually or in pairs and report back to the class. Alternatively, teachers may want to use this lesson in two parts owing to the large number of sources. We would encourage teachers to ask students to explore other original records available online from the links in this lesson.

Finally, although this lesson is aimed at Key Stages 4/5, teachers could use these documents and provide their own questions and/or create simplified transcripts to use with younger students.

Sources 1a and 1b relate to American justifications for the outbreak of war. They were published by the Second Continental Congress, which met to discuss the escalating tensions with Great Britain. The ‘Olive Branch Petition’ was a direct attempt to ease these tensions, and the ’Declaration of the Causes and Necessity for Taking Up Arms’ was issued alongside this, to explain more comprehensively why the colonists felt that they would have to resort to warfare. The document asserted that a series of ministerial actions, including ongoing taxation, the closure of colonial assemblies, and overriding of colonial courts of justice had rendered the colonists ‘slaves’, subject to the whims of Parliament despite having no representatives in the House of Commons. Thus, whilst taking up arms was a last resort, it was something that they felt compelled to do given ongoing failures to address their grievances. This suggests that the American Revolution was not inevitable, but rather a series of escalating crises in which there was opportunity to step back, but neither side wanted to be the first to back down.

It is also significant that these sources were addressed to the King. In the decade leading up to the Declaration of Independence, the colonists believed that George III was being manipulated by a cabal of conspiring ministers. However, his lack of action and ultimate description of the colonies as being ‘in rebellion’ led them to believe that he had been corrupted, and that there was no alternative to independence.

The Olive Branch Petition was penned by two great intellectual minds of the Revolution: Thomas Jefferson and John Dickinson. Both men played significant roles in articulating colonial grievances to the British, including Jefferson’s A Summary View of the Rights of British America and Dickinson’s Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania. This reveals the importance of intellectuals in the push towards Revolution. In addition, documents like those issued by the Continental Congress were circulated throughout the colonies in newspapers. The circulation of print was key to the spread of news. It allowed both the literate and non-literate public to engage in politics, as articles were often read aloud in taverns and coffee houses.

Finally, George III’s proclamation was issued the following month, in response to the earlier documents. This officially described the colonists as in rebellion, allowing the British soldiers to formally oppose them as rebels, rather than subjects. The colonists themselves perceived this as a declaration of war. They realised that the King would not listen to their requests for redress. This is significant, as prior to 1775 many colonial supplications had been addressed to the King, requesting redress from the actions of a corrupt Parliament. Instead, once they saw George III as the head rather than victim of this British conspiracy, the only solution was complete independence from Great Britain.

The terrain of the American continent was difficult for the British soldiers to navigate. The American local militia however, knew the land, and therefore could hide in woodland, mountainous areas, or even around plantations. The map (source 2a) shows how the British perceived the area around Boston, specifically during the battles at Lexington and Concord. It depicts militiamen firing behind rocks and walls, surrounding the British soldiers, and reflects the view that the British were outnumbered and overwhelmed. In addition, the areas around Boston are spread out, reflecting the rural terrain that the soldiers had to traverse between encampments, leading to both fatigue and the potential to be intercepted by the militias who knew the area better.

The difficulties of fighting local militia are further reflected in source 2b, where a British commander argues that it was against common sense to try and conquer a continent against the wishes of its inhabitants. Thomas Gage’s description of the “Strong Armys attacking in various Quarters” in source 2c reflects the important role that local militias played in supporting George Washington’s Continental army. Knowing local areas well, the militias were able to quickly surround British forces, divide them, or attack at close quarters. They could easily tire the soldiers out from the ongoing warfare.

The letter sources 3a, 3b & 3c reflect on the tactics used by the colonists, 4a & 4b reflect British tactics, and source 5 response to these tactics.

Sources 3a and 3b reveal the British strategy through Thomas Gage’s responses to the battles at Lexington and Concord and the Battle of Bunker Hill. As Commander-in-Chief of North America, Gage was responsible for the British soldiers present in the colonies. In source 3a, Gage writes to the Earl of Dartmouth, shortly after the British narrowly defeat local militias at Lexington and Concord. This source explains how the outbreak of conflict began between soldiers and militias over ammunitions. Here, Gage depicts the fight as instigated by the militias, although there is no agreement over who fired the first shot and complains that the troops were “attacked from all quarters”. He tries to blame the difficulties on the fatigue of the soldiers, rather than the strength of the local militias. The final passage reveals that these early battles angered the colonists, encouraging them to continue fighting against the British. Students could link these arguments to source 2a, which shows a physical representation of Gage’s arguments in map form.

Source 3b is a letter written by Gage, two months later, this time following the British attack on Breed’s Hill, now known as the ‘Battle of Bunker Hill’. Here, Gage reflects on the strength and organisation of the colonial militias, recognising that the British underestimated them by describing them as a mere “despicable Rabble”. Instead, he notes that they know how to make best use of the terrain and have far more spirit than they did when fighting for the British in the Seven Years’ War. Believing that they were fighting for their own rights and liberties, rather than on behalf of the Mother Country, this battle was far closer to home, emotionally and physically, for many colonists.

Sources 3c and 4a are letters exchanged between Josiah Martin, Governor of North Carolina, and the Earl of Dartmouth, Secretary of State for the Colonies, and reflect the conduct of the war in the Southern colonies. Source 3c reveals the perspective of a colonial officer: the Governor of North Carolina. In this source, Josiah Martin discusses the early fear that the colonists were losing the war. They had hoped that boycotts would lead British merchants and manufacturers to place pressure on the administration to address American grievances, but this had not been the case. Furthermore, the source also shows us that the British demanded unconditional surrender from the colonists. Nevertheless, the Americans themselves were adamant that they would not surrender, and Martin states that anyone who assumed the victory would be easy had been led astray by “profound dissimulation and falsehood”. Such language reflects ongoing fears of conspiracies in London, whether in favour of the British or the Americans.

Source 4a then reflects the significance of the southern colonies to Britain’s overall war effort. The British had assumed that most colonists in the South remained loyal to them, and therefore concentrating their forces there would support their war effort as they would be greeted more warmly by Southern colonists. However, as we can see in the source, despite many loyalists, they underestimated the patriotism of the South. Many did in fact rebel, undermining what became known as Britain’s ‘Southern Strategy’.

This document also reveals the importance of commanders on the ground to the war effort. Given the distance between Great Britain and her colonies, and the slow speed of communications across the Atlantic Ocean, the Colonial Office relied heavily on officers in place in the colonies. Hence, Dartmouth emphasises the support given to General Gage and Admiral Graves in “all such operations as they may think proper”.

Source 4b is significant in revealing the role the enslaved played in the American Revolution. The British had been struggling in the South, with less support than they had initially hoped for. Therefore, John Dunmore’s Proclamation aimed to gain support amongst the enslaved by offering their freedom if they joined the British Army. It was hoped that this would undermine the Patriots’ war effort in the south by depriving them of their labourers. However, whilst a relatively small number joined his regiment, this proclamation had a much broader impact in encouraging them to seek safety behind British lines. It also frustrated southern enslavers and intensified their anti-British sentiments.

Finally, Source 5 explores the reception of the American Revolutionary War in Britain. It is a satirical print by Mary and Matthias Darly. It presents a woman with a ‘high roll’ hairstyle, worn by wealthy British and American women. The flags show a goose, monkey, and two women, perhaps criticising the luxury and opulence of Atlantic high culture. Below the flags are three redouts [forts], on which troops are fighting. It is not easy to determine which side is British or American, perhaps reflecting notions of the conflict as a ‘civil war’ between two groups who both saw themselves as Englishmen. Moreover, the Americans themselves were divided on the war, with ‘Tories’ remaining loyal to the British whilst the ‘Patriots’ rebelled. In addition, the fact that the troops are firing on each other might also reflect the impractical and unsustainable nature of the war, and the constant stalemate between both sides. It reflects a critical attitude towards the Revolution, including the British war effort.

The source is also important for what it tells us about women. Whilst not allowed to intervene directly in politics, as voters or representatives, they were still able to comment on the political events of the day. Whether through art, as Mary Darly did, or through plays, like the American Mary Otis Warren or even the wives responsible for coordinating the boycotts against goods like tea or wool in the colonies, women were important parts of the Revolution, on both the British and American sides.

Sources

Banner image: The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public Library. “The British troops on Concord Common.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1777 – 1890. https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47da-21b0-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

Source 1a: Extracts from the Olive Branch Petition, 5 July 1775 issued 8 June, Catalogue ref: CO 5/76 f.253

Source 1b: Extracts from a ‘Declaration agreed to by the General Congress in Philadelphia’, on the 6 July 1775. Catalogue ref: CO 5/992 f161-162.

Source 1c: Extract from a proclamation issued by King George III on the 23 August 1775, Catalogue ref: Catalogue ref: CO 5/993 f.7

Source 2a: Map showing ‘A plan of the town and harbour of Boston’, John De Costa, Charles Hall, 1775. Credit: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Source 2b: Extract from a letter from Edward Harvey to John Irwin, 30^th June 1775, Catalogue ref: WO 3/5 p.37

Source 2c: Extract from a letter from General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America to the Earl of Dartmouth, 25^th June 1775, Catalogue ref: CO 5/92 f.187d.

Source 3a: Extracts from a letter from General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America to the Earl of Dartmouth, 22 April 1775, Catalogue ref: CO 5/92 f134-135.

Source 3b: Extracts from a letter from General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America to the Earl of Dartmouth, 25 June 1775. Catalogue ref: CO 5/92 f.187

Source 3c: Extracts from a letter from Governor Josiah Martin to the Earl of Dartmouth, at Fort Johnson in North Carolina, 12 November 1775, Catalogue ref: CO 5/330 f.116-117.

Source 4a: Extracts from a letter from the Earl of Dartmouth to Josiah Martin, 5 July 1775. Catalogue ref: CO 5/318 f110-112.

Source 4b: Proclamation by John Earl of Dunmore, Lieutenant and Governor General of the Colony of Virginia, 7 November 1775, Catalogue ref:  CO 5/1353 f.336

Source 5: Satirical print entitled ‘Bunkers Hill or America’s head dress’ by Mary and Matthias Darly, Published: 39 Strand, London, 19 April 1776. Credit: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

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External links

Discover more original documents with these links:

Timeline of the American Revolution, National Parks Service

American Revolutionary War maps, Norman B. Leventhal Map & Education Center, Boston Public Library

The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History

Bibliography

The Schlager Anthology of the American Revolution: A Student’s Guide to Essential Primary Sources, Jon Chandler, 2012, Publisher: Schlager. ISBN 1935306596, 9781935306597

Connections to curriculum

Key Stage 4

Edexcel GCSE History:

• British America: Empire & Revolution 1713-83.

Key Stage 5

AQA GCE History:

• The origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776
• Enforcing the Colonial Relationship, 1763–1774
• Ending the Colonial Relationship, 1774–1776

Edexcel GCE History:

• Britain: losing and gaining an empire, 1763–1914: The loss of the American colonies, 1770–83.

OCR GCE History:

• The American Revolution 1740–1796: Causes of the American Revolution.

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