The Independence of Bangladesh in 1971

Enquiry question

Investigate the sources

1. Source 1: Map showing partition of British India, 1948

   British India, also referred to as the ‘British Raj’ or ‘Direct rule in India’, was part of the British Empire from 1858 until independence in 1947. This map shows how British India was divided up after the 1947 Partition into India (majority non-Muslim) and Pakistan (majority Muslim).

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      INDIA & PAKISTAN

      SHOWING DIAGRAMMATICALLY THE POSITION OF THE STATES

      To Accompany Pol. 1431/48 of 30th June 1948

      International frontiers = [dotted line]

      ” ” undemarcated = [dotted line with x]

      State boundaries = [dotted line with blue]

      Inter-Dominion boundary = [green line]

      Portuguese Territory = [circle with diagonal lines] (P)

      French ” = [circle with horizontal lines] (F)

      Patiala Union = P. U.

      INDIA = [white]

      PAKISTAN = [green]

      States included in Part 5 of Pol. 1431/48 = [yellow]

   Examine the source

   • What do the green areas on the map represent?
   • Find East Bengal (later East Pakistan, today’s Bangladesh).
   • How far away do you think East Bengal is from West Pakistan?
   • What kind of issues do you think might come from a country being made up of two areas so far from each other? Give three suggestions.

2. Source 2: Report confirming the state language of Pakistan, 1948

   Source 2a describes the moment in 1948 when Urdu was confirmed to be the State language of both West and East Pakistan. This meant that all official business would be done in Urdu.

   Source 2b is a photograph of the Shaheed Minar (martyrs’ monument) in Altab Ali Park in Whitechapel, London. It is a replica of the same monument in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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      Jinnah received tumultuous welcome on arrival at Dacca airport. Following day he reviewed troops including newly-constituted East Bengal Regiment and said that though East Bengalis were formerly considered a non-martial race, East Bengal was now one of the most powerful components of Pakistan in which all would have opportunity to join Army and do their duty to their country.

      They were before all else Muslims belonging now to a Muslim nation and essential condition for success of Pakistan was complete internal solidarity… He confirmed that Urdu must be the State language of Pakistan, but that decision regarding Provincial language of East Bengal would be according to will of people.

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   Examine the source

   • Why do you think the leaders of Pakistan thought it was important that everyone spoke the same language? Give three reasons.
   • How do you think people in East Pakistan, who did not speak Urdu and instead spoke Bengali (Bangla), reacted to this?
   • Find out who Jinnah is.
   • Looking at Source 2b, what do you think this monument commemorates?
   • Find out what International Mother Language Day is. How is it linked to this monument?
   • This monument is located in Whitechapel, London. Why do you think there is a Shaheed Minar there?

3. Source 3: Letter on the response to cyclone Bhola, 1970

   In 1970, the Bhola cyclone struck East Pakistan, killing an estimated 300,000–500,000 people. This is a British report on how the Pakistan government responded to the disaster.

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      British High Commission,

      RAWALPINDI.

      24 November, 1970.

      Dear Webb,

      Political Aspects of the Cyclone Disaster

      Criticisms of the Pakistan Government’s handling of the relief work after the cyclone is now world-wide news. You might therefore like to have our first impressions of the political aspects of the situation. A more considered report will be in order later.

      1. Several East Wing politicians have accused the Central Government of inefficiency and ineffectiveness in bringing relief to the areas affected by the cyclone. Bhashani has been characteristically outspoken, Mujib complained of delays on 22 November, and Professor Ghulam Azam, Amir of the Jama’at-i-Islami in East Pakistan spoke in a similar vein the following day. The only West Wing political leader who has criticised the government in this way is Wali Khan. (He is now touring the affected areas and should be improving his standing in East Pakistan in so doing). These criticisms are reported in all the Pakistan press, and repeated editorially in the East Wing press. The “Pakistan Observer” has been critical of the government’s relief measures from the very beginning.
      2. We have no doubt that such criticisms are justified. The President toured the area on 16 November on his return from Peking. He is going to Dacca today to supervise relief operations, but apart from declaring 20 November as a day of national mourning he has not visibly done anything in between. Officials here in the West Wing have shown us very clearly their attitude to their Bengali compatriots by acting with a notable lack of urgency.
      3. In short, quite apart from the appalling human tragedy of it all, the cyclone has hardly been a common problem which has made the country pull together. Indeed, it has proved to be a practical example of all East Pakistan’s complaints against the West. The probable consequences for the “Joy Bangla” [‘Victory to Bengal’] vote in East Pakistan, and for the much needed spirit of cooperation in the National Assembly seem clear.

   Examine the source

   • Why is Pakistan's government being criticised for how they handled this disaster? Which groups are criticising them?
   • Who is the author of this document and what is his view?
   • Read the last paragraph of the source. What does the author think will happen because of the cyclone response?

4. Source 4: Pakistan situation report, 1971

   West Pakistan did not accept the 1970 election results (in which the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won). This led to escalating protests in East Pakistan. On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur held a speech, reported on in Source 4.

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      PAKISTAN

      SITUATION REPORT

      (Up to 0930 hours on 8 March)

      We now have a fuller account of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s speech in Dacca on 7 March. We still do not have a text. But it is clear that Mujib has set 5 conditions for his participation in the Assembly Meeting proposed by President Yahya Khan for 25 March. The conditions are:

      1. Withdrawal of all troops to barracks
      2. No further firing on civilians;
      3. No further military reinforcement from West Pakistan;
      4. No military interference in the working of Bangla Desh Government;
      5. Maintenance of law and order to be left exclusively to the Police and Bengali Rifles (East Pakistanis) (A press report mentions also assistance by Awami League Volunteers).
      6. Mujib also named an enquiry into “murders” committed in the past week by the military forces. He said his immediate goal was termination of marshall [martial] law and the transfer of power to elected representatives. Meanwhile the non-violent, non-co-operation movement must continue. In the coming week this would entail:
      7. No payment of taxes
      8. Government offices and Courts to remain closed
      9. Rail and port workers to cease work if they are used for mobilising forces of repression
      10. Bengali “radio television, newspapers” not to co-operate in suppressing news of People’s Movement
      11. Telephone to work only for calls within East Pakistan
      12. Banks to make no remittances within West Pakistan
      13. All buildings to hoist black flags daily and
      14. Further Hartal [mass protest or strike] to be declared at any moment depending on the situation
      15. Liberation Committees to be formed in every village under local Awami League leaders.

   Examine the source

   • Why do you think Sheikh Mujibur Rahman has made the demands listed here?
   • This speech is still played on many streets and national events in Bangladesh. Why do you think it resonated with so many Bengalis?

5. Source 5: Reactions to the conflict in Britain, 1971–72

   Source 5a is a photograph of the ‘Recognise Bangla-Desh Rally’ in Trafalgar Square, 8 August 1971.

   Source 5b is a report that describes Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s surprise appearance in London in January 1972 after being imprisoned by West Pakistan during the war.

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   2. 

      WEU COUNCIL MEETING: 12 JANUARY 1972

      INDIA/PAKISTAN/BANGLA DESH

      1. The most significant recent event was President Bhutto’s decision to release Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who arrived unexpectedly in London in a special Pakistani aircraft early in the morning of 8 January. Mujib had asked, after his release, either to be sent to Dacca, or to be handed over to the Red Cross or the United Nations, but these suggestions were unacceptable to the Pakistan Government. Mujib in turn refused a Pakistani suggestion that he should go to Tehran and when offered any other destination he chose to come to London.
      2. Mujib seems to have borne up well to the rigours of imprisonment the but he was still very tired and disoriented.

      However, although he spoke with bitterness of the actions of the Pakistani Army, he showed no rancour towards Bhutto and said he wished to establish good relations with Pakistan. Relations with India would, of course, be much closer. The partition should be, in his words, “a parting of brothers”. But first, he said, Bhutto must acknowledge that the division of Pakistan was a reality.

      5. It is clear particularly since the return of Sheikh Mujib to Dacca, that an independent Bangladesh now exists, and that the Bangladesh Government commands the obedience of the majority of the population. Furthermore the decision to release the Shiekh indicates that the Pakistan Government is beginning to reconcile itself to the loss of East Pakistan. The question of recognition is therefore likely to arise in the near future.

   Examine the source

   • What do the banners and signs in the photograph say?
   • What do you think is the aim of the gathering?
   • Who do you see in the crowd?
   • Why do you think that there is such a large amount of people supporting Bangladesh in London?
   • As the report explains, who imprisoned Sheikh Mujibur Rahman? Why has he been released?
   • Why do you think he decided to come to London after his release?
   • Sheikh Mujibur Rahman says that the partition between West and East Pakistan should be 'a parting as of brothers'. What do you think he meant by this?

6. Source 6: Correspondence on Britain’s recognition of Bangladesh, 1972

   Britain recognised Bangladesh as an independent country on 4 February 1972. There was a lot of internal discussion before this date on the advantages and disadvantages that might come with recognition. Britain wanted to maintain good relationships with both Bangladesh and Pakistan.

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      5. All the indications seem to me to be in favour of recognition of which in itself would be a stabilising factor and would greatly strengthen the hands of those elements in the govt who are pro-West. The Eastern Europeans are very active, and the longer recognition by the West is delayed the more likely it is that trade and financial arrangements will be made with the Communists.

      6. I appreciate that we have substantial (? word omitted) in Pakistan which we do not want to put unnecessarily at risk. But we have important investment and trading interests in Bangla Desh. The tea gardens here were by far our most valuable asset in undivided Pakistan. While obviously Bangla Desh at present is in no state to offer us a substantial export market, our manufacturing companies can look forward in the future to a modestly expanding market whereas their Pakistan counterparts face the loss of a hitherto captive market in the East. More important at present are the prospects of invisible earnings from shipping, jute baling and merchanting, and tea broking. British banks already operated more-or-less independently in the two wings and we know that the authorities here wish to use London’s banking facilities for external transactions. There is a danger that delay in recognition could divert a high proportion of these invisible earnings to India. There is also the fact that Bangla Desh is the larger of the two countries in terms of population and that in normal times earns just as much foreign exchange on visible exports.

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      The Embassy of Pakistan presents its compliments to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and has the honour to state that the Government of Pakistan has noted with profound regret the decision by the British Government to accord recognition to ‘Bangla Desh’.

      The Government of Pakistan earnestly hopes that the British Government which has recognised ‘Bangla Desh’ and has expressed its sincere desire to maintain friendly relations with Pakistan should use its good offices and impress upon India the need for the unconditional implementation of UN resolutions in respect of the withdrawal of troops. India should also be called upon to fully comply with the Geneva Convention relating to Prisoners of War and other civilians in Indian hands who should be repatriated to Pakistan without delay. Further, the British Government may consider urging the authorities in Dacca to ensure the safety and security of non-Bengalis and to stop the persecution of Bengalis who subscribed to the concept of a united Pakistan.

      The Embassy of Pakistan avails itself of this opportunity to renew to the Foreign & Commonwealth Office the assurances of its highest consideration.

      The Foreign & Commonwealth Office,

      Downing Street,

      London, SW1

   Examine the source

   • What type of source do you think 6a is? Who wrote it?
   • Give three reasons for why you think Britain would want to recognise the independence of Bangladesh.
   • What does Source 6a reveal about Britain’s attitude to the conflict between Pakistan and Bangladesh?
   • Why do you think Britain has investments in Pakistan and Bangladesh?
   • A word is missing from Source 6a. Can you suggest what it might be?
   • Why is Britain worried about Eastern European and Communist influence in Bangladesh?
   • What does source 6b reveal about relations between
     • Pakistan and Britain?
     • Britain and India?
     • India and Bangladesh?
   • What does Source 6b reveal about the attitude of the Pakistan (West Pakistan) government to the independence of Bangladesh?
   • Can you explain the meaning of the last line of Source 6b?
   • Pakistan left the Commonwealth (an association mostly of former British colonies) in 1972, not re-entering it until 1989. Based on Source 6b, why do you think it did this?
   • What are the UN (United Nations) and the Geneva Convention? Can you find out more about them?

Extension activities

• Create a timeline of events leading up to the outbreak of the war using the sources in this lesson as a guide.
• Learn more about the 1947 Partition – why did it happen? What were some of the the outcomes?
• What voices are not represented in our documents about this conflict? For example, research to learn more about the role of women in the war.
• Look at other former British colonies that achieved independence in the 20th century. How do their roads to independence compare?

Background information

Impact of partition in 1947

We can start the story of the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War with the poorly planned and tragic ‘partition’ of British India in 1947, based on religion. The separate north-eastern and north-western areas of the country, which were mostly Muslim, became a ‘united’ Pakistan. The rest of the country, mostly non-Muslim, became known as India. (See Source 1, catalogue reference: MFQ 1/1145.)

West and East Pakistan shared a religion, but not much else. For decades after partition, the East Pakistanis (present-day Bangladeshis) were treated unfairly by the West Pakistani government over 1,000 miles away. East Pakistan had more people than West Pakistan but got less money and resources from the government. From the early 1950s, the amount of money earned per person in West Pakistan grew three times as much each year compared to East Pakistan.

In 1948, Urdu became the only state language of both West and East Pakistan (see Source 2, catalogue reference: DO 142/423). It was imposed on millions of Bengali-speaking people. This led to the rise of the Bengali Language Movement, resulting in mass protests and deaths in Dhaka in 1952.

Events in East Pakistan

Bengalis have a rich and proud history and culture focused around language, art, food, fashion, community, family and religion. The 1971 Liberation War can be seen as a struggle to preserve and protect this heritage.

A few key events leading up to 1971 sped up the start of the war:

• Cyclone Bhola in November 1970 devastated East Pakistan. Around 3-500,000 people were killed and many more made destitute. Relief efforts from West Pakistan were minimal (see Source 3, catalogue reference: FCO 37/719).
• Many East Pakistanis were feeling unhappy and resentful. This led to civil disobedience (refusal to obey the government) and the imposition of martial law (temporary rule by the military). For many, these were uncertain and scary times.
• There was prejudice and violence between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking minorities (Biharis) in early March 1971.

Call for an Independent Bangladesh

Maybe the most important event leading up to the war was the 1970 election. The winning Awami League Party was led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who wanted more freedom and independence for East Pakistan. He won the national elections by a clear majority, as East Pakistan had a much larger population than West Pakistan. However, the centralised government in West Pakistan did not accept Rahman as leader. They declared the election results void. This led to the famous and emotional ‘Joy Bangla’ (‘victory to Bengal’) speech by Rahman on 7 March 1971 at a rally attended by thousands, in which he declared an ‘independent’ Bangladesh (see Source 4, catalogue reference: PREM 15/567). He was later arrested. There were more and more protests by his supporters.

Liberation War 1971

On 25 March 1971, the West Pakistani army invaded East Pakistan, trying to stop these protests. It launched Operation Searchlight, killing many Bengali civilians, intellectuals, students, politicians, and armed forces.

The brutal war that followed lasted for nine months. Estimates for the total number of civilian and military deaths range from 500,000 to over three million. Millions of refugees fled to neighbouring India. Groups of Bengali guerrilla fighters (‘mukti bahini’) and regular soldiers, helped by the Indian military, fought back against the West Pakistani army. West Pakistan eventually surrendered on 16 December 1971 (known as ‘Victory Day’), leading to the creation of Bangladesh.

You can see how complex the 1971 war was by looking at the many terms used to describe it: Bangladesh War of Independence, Liberation War, genocide, Civil War, or, by many Bangladeshis, ‘mukti juddho’/‘shongram’ (battle and resistance). The war has been immortalised in the symbolism of the national flag of Bangladesh – a dark green background with a red (bloody) circle in the middle.

Global attention for the war

Britain played an important role in bringing global attention to the war. During 1971, as members of the Commonwealth, many thousands of Bengalis were living and working in Britain. It was a harrowing time for many, as they were living far away and were worried about family and kin in East Pakistan. Foreign journalists were expelled from the region before the suppression started, so there was little international coverage of the events of 1971 (see Pakistani journalist Anthony Mascarenhas’ article ‘Genocide’ for a rare example). However, Bengalis in the UK raised funds to help the resistance. They organised peaceful campaigns and demonstrations to bring international attention to the war, such as the ‘Recognise Bangla-Desh Rally’ in Trafalgar Square on 8 August 1971, which drew thousands of people. The British government formally recognised Bangladesh as an independent nation on 4 February in 1972.

Useful links

Archived page

A parting as of brothers: Bangladesh at 50

Blog from The National Archives looking at Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s surprise visit to London, published to mark the 50th anniversary of Independence Day on 26 March 2021.

ideastore.co.uk

The Bengali East End

The Tower Hamlets Local History Library and Archives holds historical records from London’s Borough of Tower Hamlets.

bbc.co.uk

Bangladesh war: The article that changed history

BBC article looking at the legacy of Pakistani journalist Anthony Mascarenhas’ article ‘Genocide’, published in the British Sunday Times on 13 June 1971. It was a rare look inside the beginning of the war and gave it significant international attention.

swadhinata.org.uk

The Swadhinata Trust

The Swadhinata Trust is a London-based community group that promotes Bengali history and heritage.

npg.org.uk

Bangladesh liberation in photographs

A showcase by the National Portrait Gallery of Yousuf Choudhury’s photos of British-Bangladeshi demonstrations in 1971, from the book Bangladesh 50 Years.

youtube.com

The Concert for Bangladesh, August 1, 1971

Video footage from George Harrison and Ravi Shankar’s Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971, reflecting the international attention drawn to the war.

bbc.co.uk

The Partition of India: What happened?

A short and education-friendly BBC resource on the 1947 Partition, including a video and maps of West/East Pakistan.

bbc.co.uk

Witness History: The Bengali language movement

A BBC ‘Witness History’ podcast (9 minutes) on the Bengali language movement and the 1952 deaths.

smithsonianmag.com

The Genocide the U.S. Can’t Remember, But Bangladesh Can’t Forget

Article in Smithsonian Magazine about the American reactions to the war, drawing on former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s defining it as ‘genocide’.