Early modern witch trials: Witchcraft and community

Enquiry question

Investigate the sources

This selection of documents held at The National Archives focuses on attitudes in society and legal processes connected to accusations of witchcraft.

Discover more original documents in our related themed collection Early modern witch trials: Accusation and trial.

1. Source 1: Support from the community

   When people were accused of witchcraft within a community, people might either take it upon themselves to take part in the accusations, and seek justice, or to defend the accused. In this source, the neighbours (meaning simply those living in the same town) of Susanna Hinchcliffe and Anne Shillitoe strongly defend them from the accusation of witchcraft, and question the validity of the original accusation.

   1. 

      To the honourable and worshipful his Majesty’s Justices of Peace

      in the West Riding of the County of York. We whose names are

      subscribed [listed], being neighbours to, or inhabitants in the town of

      Denby in the said county, do humbly certify, as follows.

      That whereas an Information for Witchcraft is commonly reported to be exhibited

      before some of his Majesty’s Justices against Susanna Hinchliffe wife of Joseph

      Hinchliffe and Anne Shillitoe wife of Thomas Shillitoe and daughter of the said

      Joseph, both of Denby aforesaid, by one Mary Moore a girl of about sixteen years

      of age. We do humbly testify and affirm, that some of us have well known the

      said Susanna, and Anne, by the space of twenty years and upwards. Others of us

      fifteen years and upwards. Others of us ten years and upwards. And have by the

      said space observed and known the life and conversation of the said Susanna to be

      not only very sober, orderly, and unblameable in every respect, but also of good example,

      and very helpful and useful in the neighbourhood, according to her poor ability. That

      she was a constant frequenter of public ordinances, while she was able, and to the

      best of our understanding, made conscience of her ways in more than common sort.

      That we never heard, or had the least ground to suspect her, or her said daughter, to

      be in any sort guilty of so foul a crime. But do fully believe that the said information

      against them both is a most gross and groundless (if not malicious) prosecution.

      And this we humbly certify, as our very true apprehensions, as in the sight and

      presence of him, who will judge the secrets of all hearts. And as touching

      the said girl who now informs, some of us could say too much concerning her, of

      a quite different nature, but that we judge recrimination [arguments between people blaming each other] to be but an indirect way

      of clearing the innocent.

      [List of dozens of signed names in support]

   2. Listen

      Support from the community

      Audio transcript for "Support from the community"

      Defence of Susanna Hincliffe & Anne Shillitoe.

      When people were accused of witchcraft within a community, people might either take it upon themselves to take part in the accusations, and seek justice, or to defend the accused. In this source, the neighbours (meaning simply those living in the same town) of Susanna Hinchcliffe and Anne Shillitoe strongly defend them from the accusation of witchcraft, and questioned the validity of the original accusation, 1674.

      To the honourable and worshipful his Majesty’s Justices of Peace

      in the West Riding of the County of York. We whose names are

      subscribed, being neighbours to, or inhabitants in the town of

      Denby in the said county, do humbly certify, as follows.

      That whereas an Information for Witchcraft is commonly reported to be exhibited

      before some of his Majesty’s Justices against Susanna Hinchliffe wife of Joseph

      Hinchliffe and Anne Shillitoe wife of Thomas Shillitoe and daughter of the said

      Joseph, both of Denby aforesaid, by one Mary Moore a girl of about sixteen years

      of age. We do humbly testify and affirm, that some of us have well known the

      said Susanna, and Anne, by the space of twenty years and upwards. Others of us

      fifteen years and upwards. Others of us ten years and upwards. And have by the

      said space observed and known the life and conversation of the said Susanna to be

      not only very sober, orderly, and unblameable in every respect, but also of good example,

      and very helpful and useful in the neighbourhood, according to her poor ability. That

      she was a constant frequenter of public ordinances, while she was able, and to the

      best of our understanding, made conscience of her ways in more than common sort.

      That we never heard, or had the least ground to suspect her, or her said daughter, to

      be in any sort guilty of so foul a crime. But do fully believe that the said information

      against them both is a most gross and groundless (if not malicious) prosecution.

      And this we humbly certify, as our very true apprehensions, as in the sight and

      presence of him, who will judge the secrets of all hearts. And as touching

      the said girl who now informs, some of us could say too much concerning her, of

      a quite different nature, but that we judge recrimination to be but an indirect way

      of clearing the innocent.

2. Source 2: Pretending to be bewitched

   Sometimes, people would pretend to be bewitched for their own benefit. In this source Thomas Paman explains his motivations for pretending to be bewitched, and what happened during the course of his supposed bewitchment.

   1. 

      [Page one]

      Newmarket The 28 of February 1629

      Thomas Paman says

      That having long since, some two years gone, some displeasure that he could

      not have such means from his father, as he thought he lacked, paying commonly

      freely when he was in any company, and having often times threatened upon

      any discontent between his parents and himself, that he would not

      stay with them, be gone to the low countries or the like (upon the

      persuasion of some other fellows) he found himself somewhat ill

      in his body, Thursday last was a month, and being not open in his body

      thirteen days, his brother went to the physician Mr Ayers in

      Bury St Edmonds, the day before Candlemas day. But with all his

      ill disposition of his body, his minds being not better disposed, resolved

      to deceive his father, and to fain himself Frantic [ill with anxiety], in hope

      his father should allow him better maintenance or portion for his

      marriage, which he intended with one Elizabeth Waller at

      Putnam in Suffolk. To whom he was going, when he

      found himself ill (promise being past betwixt them both)

      for which match his father was not forward. And being

      thus visited in his fained [pretend] disease by divers some whereof did say they

      did think he was bewitched, by name one William Owens and

      Ambrose Evered, Roger Mountagne and the wife of William Owens

      (the first day of his fainting) thereby he took occasion to

      change his first project, and to keep them in their opinion to be

      bewitched, and having continued so till about Tuesday next after

      Candlemas day [Christian holiday on February 2 to mark presentation of child Jesus into the temple] till faining to be dumb, he heard his brother and

      divers others say, It would be good, the Justices of peace should

      [Page two]

      be acquainted with all, he thereupon did write the letter to Sir Martin

      And after counterfeited [pretended] to be not able to write anymore some

      48 hours. As before he counterfeited to be dumb unless when some

      fits were upon him, then he spoke and barked like a dog. The which

      when he saw and heard the people to marvel at, he was much pleased

      with all. Amongst them the wench that watched him (Anne

      Coward) told him, that she was once High Whirled [spun] into a ditch of

      water by the spirit. Whereby he took occasion to go the strong on

      in that faining &c. Now upon Thursday last was seven-

      night, about ten of the clock in the night he let himself

      fall out of his bed, to make them that did think and say he

      was bewitched (for others were that said he did but counterfeit)

      the more assured in their opinions. And Friday the next

      day after Alice Read (before called Alice Bird) came in

      by the means of Sir Martin Stoutville, to see what he then

      would do. Some of the standers by saying, the witch was come,

      and the wench that help him, wishing she might not come at him,

      for she could kill him, his brother and others saying, it was

      her pleasure she should come to him, and many others

      saying, that he would tear her and the like speeches. He

      thereby induced, came out of his bed and laid hold on her, pulling

      her down and pulled off her headgear, and so was taken from

      her and laid a bed again. Now being seen for to come

      hither, he fell sore afraid, but those that were about him

      persuaded him to fear nothing, but to stand to it, to the truth, to

      his own and then the two women, Elizabeth Bird and her

      daughter, and the old woman’s mother and grandmother

      [Page three]

      were suspected to be witches (those that said so are John

      Parmen & his eldest son John Parman, and others) he came hither

      this morning in his bed, without his clothes finding himself weary

      and sore, and his keeper saying that he could not suffer his clothes

      which his father would have had him put on. And this (he sayeth)

      is the plain truth, for the doing whereof he heartily craves

      pardon of God and the King promising never to do the like again

      but heartily repairing to become a new man. In witness

      here of he himself adds this much. That he will

      for ever confess that before written, and I do promise

      to use the best means that I can to the uttermost of my

      poor power to make her recompense for this wrong

      By me

      Thomas Paman

   2. Listen

      Pretending to be bewitched

      Audio transcript for "Pretending to be bewitched"

      Confession of Thomas Paman.

      Sometimes, people would pretend to be bewitched for their own benefit. In this source Thomas Paman explains his motivations for pretending to be bewitched, and what happened during the course of his supposed bewitchment, 28 February, 1629.

      Page one:

      Newmarket The 28 of February 1629

      Thomas Paman says

      That having long since, some two years gone, some displeasure that he could

      not have such means from his father, as he thought he lacked, paying commonly

      freely when he was in any company, and having often times threatened upon

      any discontent between his parents and himself, that he would not

      stay with them, be gone to the low countries or the like (upon the

      persuasion of some other fellows) he found himself somewhat ill

      in his body, Thursday last was a month, and being not open in his body

      thirteen days, his brother went to the physician Mr Ayers in

      Bury St Edmonds, the day before Candlemas day. But with all his

      ill disposition of his body, his minds being not better disposed, resolved

      to deceive his father, and to fain himself Frantic, in hope

      his father should allow him better maintenance or portion for his

      marriage, which he intended with one Elizabeth Waller at

      Putnam in Suffolk. To whom he was going, when he

      found himself ill (promise being past betwixt them both)

      for which match his father was not forward. And being

      thus visited in his fained disease by divers some whereof did say they

      did think he was bewitched, by name one William Owens and

      Ambrose Evered, Roger Mountagne and the wife of William Owens

      (the first day of his fainting) thereby he took occasion to

      change his first project, and to keep them in their opinion to be

      bewitched, and having continued so till about Tuesday next after

      Candlemas day till faining to be dumb, he heard his brother and

      divers others say, It would be good, the Justices of peace should

      Page two:

      be acquainted with all, he thereupon did write the letter to Sir Martin

      And after counterfeited [pretended] to be not able to write anymore some

      48 hours. As before he counterfeited to be dumb unless when some

      fits were upon him, then he spoke and barked like a dog. The which

      when he saw and heard the people to marvel at, he was much pleased

      with all. Amongst them the wench that watched him (Anne

      Coward) told him, that she was once High Whirled into a ditch of

      water by the spirit. Whereby he took occasion to go the strong on

      in that faining &c. Now upon Thursday last was seven-

      night, about ten of the clock in the night he let himself

      fall out of his bed, to make them that did think and say he

      was bewitched (for others were that said he did but counterfeit)

      the more assured in their opinions. And Friday the next

      day after Alice Read (before called Alice Bird) came in

      by the means of Sir Martin Stoutville, to see what he then

      would do. Some of the standers by saying, the witch was come,

      and the wench that help him, wishing she might not come at him,

      for she could kill him, his brother and others saying, it was

      her pleasure she should come to him, and many others

      saying, that he would tear her and the like speeches. He

      thereby induced, came out of his bed and laid hold on her, pulling

      her down and pulled off her headgear, and so was taken from

      her and laid a bed again. Now being seen for to come

      hither, he fell sore afraid, but those that were about him

      persuaded him to fear nothing, but to stand to it, to the truth, to

      his own and then the two women, Elizabeth Bird and her

      daughter, and the old woman’s mother and grandmother

      Page Three:

      were suspected to be witches (those that said so are John

      Parmen & his eldest son John Parman, and others) he came hither

      this morning in his bed, without his clothes finding himself weary

      and sore, and his keeper saying that he could not suffer his clothes

      which his father would have had him put on. And this (he sayeth)

      is the plain truth, for the doing whereof he heartily craves

      pardon of God and the King promising never to do the like again

      but heartily repairing to become a new man. In witness

      here of he himself adds this much. That he will

      for ever confess that before written, and I do promise

      to use the best means that I can to the uttermost of my

      poor power to make her recompense for this wrong

      By me

      Thomas Paman

3. Source 3: Scottish witches

   In this source a minister of a Scottish church (where there were lots of witch trials) complained that Parliament was not doing enough to help him prosecute a group of women who were suspected of witchcraft.

   1. 

      Unto the right honourable the High Court of Parliament

      The humble supplication of the Presbytery [Scottish church] of Stranrawer

      Humble sheweth

      That in law it pleased the honourable Lords of the Privy Council to grant Warrants

      and Commissions for trying and administering of justice upon Marion Shenon wife to John Jameson

      of Drochdoill, Jeneat McKenon wife to Alexander Lowlie in Balmurrey, Africt Blam, wife to John

      McLung in Kirkibae, Marion Russell in Glenluce, and Isabel Biggam, in the parish of

      Stranrawer, which persons are suspected are guilty of the crime of witchcraft

      …

      [petitioner complains that those commissioned to try these accused people, have not done anything]

      …

      Therefore, we humble beseech their highness’s

      honourable Court of Parliament that the aforesaid commission may be renewed at least that

      a competent number maybe added thereto to supply the place of those whom we conceived

      incapable or unwilling…

      whereby Justice may be administered

      upon the aforesaid suspected persons.

      They being put to trial and executions…

      if they shall be found guilty or innocent. Conforming to the said commissions

      we your supplicants be encouraged to set the advancement of the gospel

      and the punishment of vice in our calling and charge. And your honours answer

      we expect

      My John Crookes minister at the new

      Kirk [church] of Glenluce, Commissioner for the

      Presbytery of Stranrawe

   2. Listen

      Scottish witches

      Audio transcript for "Scottish witches"

      Scottish Witches.

      In this source a minister of a Scottish church (where there were lots of witch trials) complained that Parliament was not doing enough to help him prosecute a group of women who were suspected of witchcraft, 29 June, 1649.

      Unto the right honourable the High Court of Parliament

      The humble supplication of the Presbytery of Stranrawer

      Humble sheweth

      That in law it pleased the honourable Lords of the Privy Council to grant Warrants

      and Commissions for trying and administering of justice upon Marion Shenon wife to John Jameson

      of Drochdoill, Jeneat McKenon wife to Alexander Lowlie in Balmurrey, Africt Blam, wife to John

      McLung in Kirkibae, Marion Russell in Glenluce, and Isabel Biggam, in the parish of

      Stranrawer, which persons are suspected are guilty of the crime of witchcraft

      …

      [petitioner complains that those commissioned to try these accused people, have not done anything]

      …

      Therefore, we humble beseech their highness’s

      honourable Court of Parliament that the aforesaid commission may be renewed at least that

      a competent number maybe added thereto to supply the place of those whom we conceived

      incapable or unwilling…

      whereby Justice may be administered

      upon the aforesaid suspected persons.

      They being put to trial and executions…

      if they shall be found guilty or innocent. Conforming to the said commissions

      we your supplicants be encouraged to set the advancement of the gospel

      and the punishment of vice in our calling and charge. And your honours answer

      we expect

      My John Crookes minister at the new

      Kirk of Glenluce, Commissioner for the

      Presbytery of Stranrawe

4. Source 4: Accusing the monarch of witchcraft

   It was not just ordinary people who were accused of witchcraft. Accusing the monarch of being a witch was dangerous, which is probably why this report, where a ‘stranger’ slandered Queen Elizabeth and Prince Henry (the late son of King James I), made its way into the hands of the Secretary of State.

   1. 

      [Page one]

      The relation of Roger Morse of the

      town and county of Southampton

      Clothier taken the xxvij [27th] day of November

      1624

      Before John Elvie, Mayor, Edward Epton

      William Movey, John Long, Arthur Baker

      John Mayor, Richard Dalby and

      George Gallop Alderman Justices of

      the peace within the said town

      and county

      Morse says that yesterday being the xxviij [28th]

      day of this instant November about nine o’clock

      in the evening one Mr Butler the curate of

      Milbrooke in the county of Southampton came

      unto this relator’s house, bringing thither with

      him a stranger called Mr Morgan, and required

      to lodge there that night, which this relator

      granted, and thereupon brought them into a

      chamber in the house there to lodge and about

      half an hour after this relator and one

      John Percher came into the said chamber

      unto them, where they fell in discourse together

      touching the wars in the Low Countries

      and so of England and of Spain. And this

      relator saying that if Queen Elizabeth

      had lived but a little longer she would have

      made the King of Spain a poor King or

      to the like effect, the said Morgan made

      answer this: They say that she was a

      whore and a witch. And this relator performing

      in this discourse the present state and

      strength of our King and Kingdom before

      Spain the said Morgan replied that

      England was weak and the Castles were weak

      [Page two]

      naming the Castles of Dover and Hurst

      and Calshot Castle. And that the King

      of Spain paid more in one year to his soldiers

      than all the revenues of England were worth

      …Saying further, you shall

      see what will become of England and

      repeating those words oftentimes. And this

      relator in their said discourse saying that the

      late prince Henry of Wales would have met

      with Spain well enough, if he had lived

      or to the like effect, the said Morgan replied

      they say before his body was cold on earth

      his soul was frying on a gridiron [a hot grill for cooking] in hell

   2. Listen

      Accusing monarch of witchcraft

      Audio transcript for "Accusing monarch of witchcraft"

      Accusing Queen Elizabeth I and Prince Henry of witchcraft.

      It was not just ordinary people who were accused of witchcraft. Accusing the monarch of being a witch was dangerous, which is probably why this report, where a ‘stranger’ slandered Queen Elizabeth and Prince Henry (the late son of King James I), made its way into the hands of the Secretary of State, 28 November, 1624.

      [Page one]

      The relation of Roger Morse of the

      town and county of Southampton

      Clothier taken the 27th day of November

      1624

      Before John Elvie, Mayor, Edward Epton

      William Movey, John Long, Arthur Baker

      John Mayor, Richard Dalby and

      George Gallop Alderman Justices of

      the peace within the said town

      and county

      Morse says that yesterday being the 28th

      day of this instant November about nine o’clock

      in the evening one Mr Butler the curate of

      Milbrooke in the county of Southampton came

      unto this relator’s house, bringing thither with

      him a stranger called Mr Morgan, and required

      to lodge there that night, which this relator

      granted, and thereupon brought them into a

      chamber in the house there to lodge and about

      half an hour after this relator and one

      John Percher came into the said chamber

      unto them, where they fell in discourse together

      touching the wars in the Low Countries

      and so of England and of Spain. And this

      relator saying that if Queen Elizabeth

      had lived but a little longer she would have

      made the King of Spain a poor King or

      to the like effect, the said Morgan made

      answer this: They say that she was a

      whore and a witch. And this relator performing

      in this discourse the present state and

      strength of our King and Kingdom before

      Spain the said Morgan replied that

      England was weak and the Castles were weak

      [Page two]

      naming the Castles of Dover and Hurst

      and Calshot Castle. And that the King

      of Spain paid more in one year to his soldiers

      than all the revenues of England were worth

      …Saying further, you shall

      see what will become of England and

      repeating those words oftentimes. And this

      relator in their said discourse saying that the

      late prince Henry of Wales would have met

      with Spain well enough, if he had lived

      or to the like effect, the said Morgan replied

      they say before his body was cold on earth

      his soul was frying on a gridiron in hell.

5. Source 5: Neighbours' accusations

   This source, which is the testimony of a witness in a witchcraft trial, contains some of the reasons why neighbours might accuse each other of witchcraft. It shows how they could be quite every-day concerns but that they led to very supernatural accusations.

   1. 

      The Information of Richard Jackson of Wakefield

      taking upon oath the 7th of June

      1656

      Who says that he being tenant to Mr Stringer of Sharlston

      for a farm called by the name of Bunny Hall near

      Wakefield one Jennett Benton and George Benton her son

      pretended to have a high way through the grounds

      belonging to the said farm which one Daniel Crave,

      servant to the said Richard Jackson & by his master

      appointed, did endeavour to hinder upon which the said George Benton

      cast a stone at him, the said Craven, where with he cut

      his lip and broke two teeth out of his chaps. So

      an action being brought against the said George Benton

      for the trespass, which was submitted unto by him, & endeavoured

      to end the difference, which was composed & satisfaction

      given unto the said Craven. After which the said Jennett

      Benton & George Benton her son did utter these speeches:

      that it should be a dear day’s work unto the said Richard

      Jackson or to his, before the year went about. Since

      which time his wife hath had her hearing taking from

      her, a child strangely taken with fits in the night time

      Also being formerly of healthful body have

      been suddenly taken without probably reason to be given or

      natural cause appearing, being sometimes in such extremity

      that he conceived himself drawn in pieces at the heart, back

      and shoulder and that in the beginning of these fits the first night

      he heard a great noise of music & dancing about him.

      The next night, about twelve of the clock, he was taken with another

      fit & in the middle of it he conceives there was a noise like

      ringing of small bells with singing & dancing and sometime

      both nights a noise of deep groaning upon which he called of his wife

      and asked her if she heard it not & so of his man who answered they

      did not he asked them again & again if they heard it not at last

      his wife and servant all heard it gave three hard groans and at that instant

      dogs did howl and yell and the window as though they would have pulled

      them in pieces. He had also a great many swine which broke through

      two barn doors, also the door in the house, at that time [clapped] to and

      from the boxes and trunks as they conceived was removed, and several

      apparitions like black dogs and cats were seen in the house & the informer

      further says that since the time that the said Jennett Benton and George

      Benton threatened him he hath lost his horses and means and that he

      conceives he hath had all the loss by the use and practise of some witch-

      craft or sorcery by the said Jennett Benton and George Benton

   2. Listen

      Neighbours' accusations

      Audio transcript for "Neighbours' accusations"

      Accusing Jennet and George Benton of witchcraft.

      This source, which is the testimony of a witness in a witchcraft trial, contains some of the reasons why neighbours might accuse each other of witchcraft. It shows how they could be quite every-day concerns but that they led to very supernatural accusations, 7 June, 1656.

      The Information of Richard Jackson of Wakefield

      taking upon oath the 7th of June

      1656

      Who says that he being tenant to Mr Stringer of Sharlston

      for a farm called by the name of Bunny Hall near

      Wakefield one Jennett Benton and George Benton her son

      pretended to have a high way through the grounds

      belonging to the said farm which one Daniel Crave,

      servant to the said Richard Jackson & by his master

      appointed, did endeavour to hinder upon which the said George Benton

      cast a stone at him, the said Craven, where with he cut

      his lip and broke two teeth out of his chaps. So

      an action being brought against the said George Benton

      for the trespass, which was submitted unto by him, & endeavoured

      to end the difference, which was composed & satisfaction

      given unto the said Craven. After which the said Jennett

      Benton & George Benton her son did utter these speeches:

      that it should be a dear day’s work unto the said Richard

      Jackson or to his, before the year went about. Since

      which time his wife hath had her hearing taking from

      her, a child strangely taken with fits in the night time

      Also being formerly of healthful body have

      been suddenly taken without probably reason to be given or

      natural cause appearing, being sometimes in such extremity

      that he conceived himself drawn in pieces at the heart, back

      and shoulder and that in the beginning of these fits the first night

      he heard a great noise of music & dancing about him.

      The next night, about twelve of the clock, he was taken with another

      fit & in the middle of it he conceives there was a noise like

      ringing of small bells with singing & dancing and sometime

      both nights a noise of deep groaning upon which he called of his wife

      and asked her if she heard it not & so of his man who answered they

      did not he asked them again & again if they heard it not at last

      his wife and servant all heard it gave three hard groans and at that instant

      dogs did howl and yell and the window as though they would have pulled

      them in pieces. He had also a great many swine which broke through

      two barn doors, also the door in the house, at that time [clapped] to and

      from the boxes and trunks as they conceived was removed, and several

      apparitions like black dogs and cats were seen in the house & the informer

      further says that since the time that the said Jennett Benton and George

      Benton threatened him he hath lost his horses and means and that he

      conceives he hath had all the loss by the use and practise of some witch-

      craft or sorcery by the said Jennett Benton and George Benton.

6. Source 6: Drowning of a witch

   This is a regular piece of correspondence that was sent into the Navy Board, but it contains an unusual detail about what the neighbours of a woman suspected of witchcraft did to her.

   1. 

      [On side of letter]

      This day a woman suspected for a witch was put a swimming

      by her neighbours for trial until they had drowned her

      a piece of such cruelty as I have rarely heard of

      [On reverse of letter]

      Chatham 13 August 1675

      Survey—has seen the

      Order about allowing 6 pence

      a man a day who works at the

      Wrecks—complaining of the

      backwardness of their working

      –wants timber and plank for the

      wharfs—asks directions

      about buying Sir Charles Bickerstaff’s

      Timber—prays coming to

      a speedy resolution—

      Trying a woman for a Witch

      Drowned her

   2. Listen

      Drowning of a witch

      Audio transcript for "Drowning of a witch"

      Unnamed witches: a drowned witch.

      This is a regular piece of correspondence that was sent into the Navy Board, but it contains an unusual detail about what the neighbours of a woman suspected of witchcraft did to her, 14 August 1675.

      [On side of letter]

      This day a woman suspected for a witch was put a swimming

      by her neighbours for trial until they had drowned her

      a piece of such cruelty as I have rarely heard of

      [On reverse of letter]

      Chatham 13 August 1675

      Survey—has seen the

      Order about allowing 6 pence

      a man a day who works at the

      Wrecks—complaining of the

      backwardness of their working

      –wants timber and plank for the

      wharfs—asks directions

      about buying Sir Charles Bickerstaff’s

      Timber—prays coming to

      a speedy resolution—

      Trying a woman for a Witch

      Drowned her.

7. Source 7: Fear of witches

   The witch in this source was accused of a range of serious crimes, including causing the Queen’s bareness and the death of an MP. It shows how much witches could be feared and what it was perceived their powers could be.

   1. 

      There is a woman about Looe in this County

      apprehended for a witch & is by letters from

      [?] I am informed that he hath dis-

      covered that she was in the fleet when the

      Duke of York was at sea & hindered the

      prosecution of that victor against the Dutch

      & that she hath been the cause of the

      Queen’s barrenness & several other things

      & that she caused the bull to kill Colonel

      Robinson a parliament man & justice of the

      peace because he prosecuted the non con-

      formists she being one herself: either a

      Presbyterian or a Baptist. She was discovered

      by cats bouncing in the air & inviting

      one of her neighbours to the same craft.

      Some say she is Mize & say & con-

      fess anything but by letter that came

      from those parts say that she hath several

      marks about her where the Devil hath

      sucked her. She is apprehended & sent to

      Gaol, the Assizes being near I shall then

      give you a more certain account.

   2. Listen

      Fear of witches

      Audio transcript for "Fear of witches"

      Unnamed witches: a witch at sea.

      The witch in this source was accused of a range of serious crimes, including causing the Queen’s bareness and the death of an MP. It shows how much witches could be feared and what it was perceived their powers could be, 27 February, 1671.

      Paragraph 3:

      There is a woman about Looe in this County

      apprehended for a witch & is by letters from

      [?] I am informed that he hath dis-

      covered that she was in the fleet when the

      Duke of York was at sea & hindered the

      prosecution of that victor against the Dutch

      & that she hath been the cause of the

      Queen’s barrenness & several other things

      & that she caused the bull to kill Colonel

      Robinson a parliament man & justice of the

      peace because he prosecuted the non con-

      formists she being one herself: either a

      Presbyterian or a Baptist. She was discovered

      by cats bouncing in the air & inviting

      one of her neighbours to the same craft.

      Some say she is Mize & say & con-

      fess anything but by letter that came

      from those parts say that she hath several

      marks about her where the Devil hath

      sucked her. She is apprehended & sent to

      Gaol, the Assizes being near I shall then

      give you a more certain account.

8. Source 8: Violence against witches

   This source contains an example of the extreme violence that could be committed against people who were accused of witchcraft.

   1. 

      The man I told you of his name was

      Pemberton: an active man in several professions, but a papist and

      hath been a teacher over of recusant’s children.[Recusant was English Catholic who refused to attend services of the Church of England]

      This man, as the general report is, was

      cast out of their Synagogue. Where upon he grew melancholy

      seeking by all means to be reconciled again to his former state.

      And as it is conveyed (for no man can prove their secret

      passages) had conference with a priest, who after many

      delays should tell him that there was no means for his

      reconcilement [forgiveness] but to procure [get hold of] the heart of a heretic.

      Whereupon (as it seems) he gave out in speeches that he

      would kill this woman for (says he) she is a witch.

      After a while being at work near the place, he was willed

      to come to supper, which quoth [said] he: “But I will kill the witch

      first, whereof the messenger laughed as at a jest.”

      So he went to the house to come in, the doors were shut (for they

      were jealous [mindful] of his words) he bade open the door, they would not, for

      it was tight. Then he took up a mighty stone and at

      serious assault broke it down. The women came out

      backward to a neighbour’s house. But he fell first upon the

      men & with a whittle like a butcher’s knife gave him fifty wounds.

      Then he followed the women, but a maid resisting him got five

      great wounds and he would have killed her, unless she told him

      where the witch was. Whereof she told him under the bed.

      He came into the chamber door, pulled her out, cut her throat

      so wide it lay upon her bosom. Ripped down her breast

      but could not get his hand in for the bone. Then he ripped

      her up the belly, thrust in his arm & caught a piece of her

      [?] with his knife in one hand and liver in the other. Bragging

      openly he had killed the witch, there was her heart. And

      now he cared not what became of him.

   2. Listen

      Violence against witches

      Audio transcript for "Violence against witches"

      Unnamed witches: a murdered witch.

      This source contains an example of the extreme violence that could be committed against people who were accused of witchcraft, 2 December, 1625.

      The man I told you of his name was

      Pemberton: an active man in several professions, but a papist and

      hath been a teacher over of recusant’s children.

      This man, as the general report is, was

      cast out of their Synagogue. Where upon he grew melancholy

      seeking by all means to be reconciled again to his former state.

      And as it is conveyed (for no man can prove their secret

      passages) had conference with a priest, who after many

      delays should tell him that there was no means for his

      reconcilement but to procure the heart of a heretic.

      Whereupon (as it seems) he gave out in speeches that he

      would kill this woman for (says he) she is a witch.

      After a while being at work near the place, he was willed

      to come to supper, which quoth he: “But I will kill the witch

      first, whereof the messenger laughed as at a jest.”

      So he went to the house to come in, the doors were shut (for they

      were jealous of his words) he bade open the door, they would not, for

      it was tight. Then he took up a mighty stone and at

      serious assault broke it down. The women came out

      backward to a neighbour’s house. But he fell first upon the

      men & with a whittle like a butcher’s knife gave him fifty wounds.

      Then he followed the women, but a maid resisting him got five

      great wounds and he would have killed her, unless she told him

      where the witch was. Whereof she told him under the bed.

      He came into the chamber door, pulled her out, cut her throat

      so wide it lay upon her bosom. Ripped down her breast

      but could not get his hand in for the bone. Then he ripped

      her up the belly, thrust in his arm & caught a piece of her

      [?] with his knife in one hand and liver in the other. Bragging

      openly he had killed the witch, there was her heart. And

      now he cared not what became of him.

9. Source 9: Male witches

   It was not just women who were accused of witchcraft. This source, which is the account of some men who lived in the parish of Edmonton, contains the story of them witnessing two men in the act of witchcraft.

   1. 

      May it please your worships to understand that we John Gilbert

      and John Holmead servants to Humfrey Weld citizen and grocer of London

      being at our master’s house at Southstreet in the parish of Edmonton

      the xxj [21st ] day of this instant month of September were commanded

      by the constables with others to make search for certain men which

      were about the act of witchcraft or conjuring. Which men we found

      in the field or close of one Robert Hewes otherwise called Robert Carpenter

      which ij [2] conjurers when they espied us one of them fled away, but the other

      of them we took with certain Latin books about him, which are to be seen.

      Divers [various] others returned to their cabin which they had made under a great

      tree in the said close of the said Robert Hewes with certain circles on

      the ground within the said cabin and one of the said circles was laid

      about with parchment written upon with crosses. And by the said cabin

      we found a stool with divers pots by the same stool and a red

      cock [chicken] being dead by it, and again by the said stool a fair crystal

      stone with this word (Satan) written on it. Also a parchment

      written with three or four seals of yellow wax at the same

      we found also in the same cabin a Cope (cape worn by churchmen) Sirpler [surplice or church tunic] a Crown

      a Sceptre and a fair broad sword ready drawn being set up against

      the tree and divers other books and writings and a piece of brass

      gilded with divers letters graven upon it, and powders and ratsbane [arsenic]

      which the party that fled strewed in the way disappointing thereby

      our blood hound. And the party which we took had about him the

      picture of Christ on the cross hanging behind his back under his

      doublet & on the same string before him the picture of serpents or

      such like. And the said party was brought by the Constables before

      Mr Justice Clark to be examined, and we understand that the said

      conjurer is let go upon security to answer the same at the next

      sessions

   2. Listen

      Male witches

      Audio transcript for "Male witches"

      Unnamed witches: the men of Edmonton.

      It was not just women who were accused of witchcraft. This source, which is the account of some men who lived in the parish of Edmonton, contains the story of them witnessing two men in the act of witchcraft. 20 September, 1590.

      May it please your worships to understand that we John Gilbert

      and John Holmead servants to Humfrey Weld citizen and grocer of London

      being at our master’s house at Southstreet in the parish of Edmonton

      the 21st day of this instant month of September were commanded

      by the constables with others to make search for certain men which

      were about the act of witchcraft or conjuring. Which men we found

      in the field or close of one Robert Hewes otherwise called Robert Carpenter

      which 2 conjurers when they espied us one of them fled away, but the other

      of them we took with certain Latin books about him, which are to be seen.

      Divers others returned to their cabin which they had made under a great

      tree in the said close of the said Robert Hewes with certain circles on

      the ground within the said cabin and one of the said circles was laid

      about with parchment written upon with crosses. And by the said cabin

      we found a stool with divers pots by the same stool and a red

      cock [chicken] being dead by it, and again by the said stool a fair crystal

      stone with this word (Satan) written on it. Also a parchment

      written with three or four seals of yellow wax at the same

      we found also in the same cabin a Cope (cape worn by churchmen) Sirpler a Crown

      a Sceptre and a fair broad sword ready drawn being set up against

      the tree and divers other books and writings and a piece of brass

      gilded with divers letters graven upon it, and powders and ratsbane

      which the party that fled strewed in the way disappointing thereby

      our blood hound. And the party which we took had about him the

      picture of Christ on the cross hanging behind his back under his

      doublet & on the same string before him the picture of serpents or

      such like. And the said party was brought by the Constables before

      Mr Justice Clark to be examined, and we understand that the said

      conjurer is let go upon security to answer the same at the next

      sessions

10. Source 10: Witch charged

    In this source, Agnes Whittenbery is accused of bewitching to death two hogs which were the goods and chattels [possessions] of Francis Combes. It is written in Latin on a piece of parchment.

    1. 

11. Source 11: Witches in popular culture: advertising

    This poster design was registered at Stationers’ Hall under the Copyright Acts in force from 1842 to 1912.

    1. 

12. Source 12: Witches in popular culture: The arts

    1. 

13. Source 13: Witches in popular culture: Design

    1. 

Background information

Early modern ‘witch crazes’

In early modern society there was a genuine fear of witchcraft, and those suspected of consorting with the Devil could be put on trial and executed, occasionally in large numbers. From a modern perspective, the so-called ‘witch crazes’ can be difficult to understand. What sorts of people were accused of witchcraft? Why? How genuine were people’s suspicions? And what evidence was required for somebody to be executed? This resource helps to highlight some of the reasons why people were accused of witchcraft, who they were, and what happened to them as a result.

‘Malleus Maleficarum’

The fear of witches, witchcraft, and bewitchment originated in the medieval period, when the Roman Catholic Church taught the dangers of witchcraft. Printed texts, such as Malleus Maleficarum, illustrated the horrors of witchcraft. Witchcraft remained within the popular imagination into the early modern period, and after the Reformation it was still perceived to be a threat to the church and a well-ordered society.

Accusations of witchcraft

In times of uncertainty and upheaval, witchcraft accusations would increase, and so there were often more witchcraft accusations during times of war and famine. General fears of witchcraft within society could also feed into specific accusations that originated within a local community, so that somebody disliked by their neighbours might be more vulnerable to being accused.

In this resource there are lots of examples of ordinary people being accused of witchcraft by their neighbours. One example is Joan Guppie, whose neighbours believed her to be a witch and who took it upon themselves to try to punish her. There were also waves of accusations as groups of people were rounded up and put on trial together, such as the Lancaster witches: a group of women who were tried together 20 years after the famous Pendle witch trials.

Women and witchcraft

Witchcraft was particularly associated with women in the early modern period, and this continued into the modern era. In this resource there are several examples of modern images of witches who were women, often riding on broomsticks with a pointy hat: the image that we most associate with witchcraft today. However, an image of a witch taken from the seventeenth century shows some aspects of this witchcraft stereotype have been around for a long time.

Women were more likely to be accused because of the church’s teaching that women were the weaker sex, seen as more vulnerable to the seductive powers of the Devil. Therefore, accusations of witchcraft became another way for women to be oppressed in early modern society. However, men were also suspected and accused of witchcraft, such as the male witches of Edmonton.

Documents from The National Archives

Lots of the sources in this resource are legal documents that relate to witchcraft trials. When a person was accused of witchcraft an Indictment would be drawn up, then witnesses would be called, an examination of the accused would be carried out, and then sometimes a confession drawn out, possibly with torture. Those found guilty would be executed.

Not all accusations of witchcraft were believed, however. Even in this period, people were suspicious of attempts to pretend to be bewitched, or pretending to be a witch, and were aware that not all cases of witchcraft were genuine. For example, in this resource is the case of Katherine Malpas, whose relatives pretended she was a witch for their own financial benefit.

Witchcraft and communities

Witchcraft caused great fear within society, but it also often became a function of normal life. Somebody new to a community might be accused of witchcraft because his or her neighbours were suspicious of them. Sometimes a person might pretend to be bewitched because it was a way of making money. People were more suspicious of witchcraft when the harvest failed, as they looked to find a cause. Witchcraft trials became ways for grievances and disputes to be aired, and for people to stand in testimony for or against their neighbours.

In many ways, therefore, understanding the history of witchcraft tells us less about the supernatural than it does about the realities of everyday life for ordinary people in early modern England.

Useful links

Teaching resource

Early modern witch trials: Accusation and trial

This set of documents relates to the witch craze in 17th-century England, focusing on beliefs, behaviours and legal processes.

In pictures

Witchcraft

Accusations of witchcraft resulted in the trials of thousands of people in the early modern period, mostly women. Our records give descriptions of many cases.

youtube.com

‘A huge pack of witches’: A witch scare in 17th-century Lancashire

A 30-minute talk featuring some of the documents in this resource by The National Archives' Dr Jessica Nelson.

witches.hca.ed.ac.uk

The Survey of Scottish Witchcraft

Use the Edinburgh University Survey of Scottish Witchcraft Database, which includes nearly 4,000 records of accused witches and documents on witchcraft belief.

sourcebooks.fordham.edu

Medieval Sourcebook: Witchcraft Documents (15th Century)

A short collection of primary sources on the witch craze, including an extract from the Papal Bull of 1484 and Nider’s Formicarius.

oldbaileyonline.org

The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674-1913

Detailed proceedings (although not entire transcripts) for trials at the London central criminal court. Search for witchcraft cases for the period 1679 to 1772.