Turkey in 1914

Overview

In 1914 Turkey, not yet a separate nation state, formed the heartland of the Ottoman Empire. It extended from the rump of Ottoman territories left in Europe in the west through to the Caucasus in the east. It was the most important of the Ottoman territories economically and in terms of population; while Turks formed the largest single group, it was highly ethnically diverse.

Turkey was the focus of heavy fighting both around the Dardanelles in the west and on the Russian border. In addition to this, Turkey saw huge domestic upheaval, through the impact of the war and large-scale civilian population movements. This brought suffering and death on an unprecedented scale, particularly to the civilian ethnic minorities.

The armistice in 1918 provided only very temporary respite for Turkey. The post-war period was an extremely turbulent and violent time, as the Ottoman Empire collapsed and the modern state of Turkey was formed.

Entry into the war

HMS Agincourt ADM 176/796

The Ottoman Empire had, throughout the 19th century, been perceived to be crumbling: it was the source of considerable tension among the Great Powers, all of whom wanted a share of the spoils. In the first decade of the 20th century, German influence in Constantinople rode high, driven in part by growing commercial ties. This was placed in jeopardy by the military coup which brought a group known as the Young Turks to power in Constantinople in 1908. These reformers initially had stronger connections with Britain, but this waned in the years before the war, leaving Ottoman foreign policy in a state of flux in 1914 (FO 373/3/6).

The Ottoman Empire did not enter the conflict in the first weeks, opting to wait and find out which way the war appeared to be going and see what concessions it could get from the other powers. A key factor came in late July when Britain decided to seize two battleships, Sultân Osmân-ı Evvel and Reşadiye, which were being built by British firms for the Ottoman Navy. These were renamed Agincourt and Erin and saw service in the British fleet. One of these ships had been paid for by popular subscription and British action was viewed as virtually an act of war (CAB 41/35/33).

Soon after, two German ships in the Mediterranean, the Goeben and the Breslau, managed to evade superior British forces and sailed up the Dardanelles to Constantinople. The Germans offered these ships to the Ottomans as part of negotiations to bring the empire into the war on the side of the Central Powers. A secret agreement was reached and, on 31 October 1914, the ships – recently renamed Yavuz Sultan Selim and Midilli – took part in a surprise operation to bombard Russian ports in the Black Sea. Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 2 November, followed by Britain and France on 5 November (FO 438/3; FO 438/4).

Gallipoli

V Beach at Gallipoli with Turk flank trench visible WO 317/1/28

The entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war caused major problems for the Allies. It greatly extended the geographical scope of the conflict and, crucially, cut off trade into the Black Sea – a vital artery for Russia. The Ottoman Empire was felt to be one of the weakest of the Central Powers and the Allies were keen to knock it out of the war early.

To achieve this, Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, developed a plan for a joint Anglo-French fleet to force a passage through the Dardanelles and anchor off Constantinople. It was thought that the threat of bombardment would be sufficient to force the Ottomans to sue for peace. The first attack on the forts on either side of the Dardanelles took place on 19 February 1915, and was only a limited success. The battleships found it difficult to target the Turkish forts and smaller, mobile guns prevented minesweepers from clearing the minefields. A major new assault took place on 18 March but three battleships in the Allied fleet sank  and a battlecruiser was badly damaged after striking mines. They failed to silence the forts (ADM 137/1089, CAB 37/128/13).

Following the failure of the naval assault, it was decided that troops would be required to seize the Gallipoli peninsula on the European side of the Dardanelles. With the forts silenced, the fleet could proceed to Constantinople as originally intended. Soldiers from Britain, France and the newly formed Australian and New Zealand Army Corp (ANZACs) landed on the peninsula on 25 April 1915. Despite early success, the operation quickly became bogged down in attritional trench warfare. The Turkish forces were commanded by the inspirational figure of Mustafa Kemal and, although there were a series of major Allied offensives in the summer and autumn of 1915, little progress was made towards dislodging the Turks (CAB 45/236).

The deteriorating situation in the Balkans, combined with limited prospects for success, convinced the Allied governments to withdraw the troops from Gallipoli (CAB 24/1/48). This operation was carried out in December 1915 and early January 1916, and in contrast to much of the rest of the campaign was exceptionally well planned and executed. The withdrawal signaled the end of a campaign that was a great military success for the Ottomans, and also helped boost moral and unite key parts of the empire behind the war effort.

Russian Front and the Caucasus

British Army map from 31 July 2018 WO 153/794

Russia and the Ottoman Empire had fought a number of conflicts throughout the 19th century, with the Ottomans gradually being forced out of the Caucasus and back into eastern Anatolia. Relations between the empires remained difficult, with the Ottomans wishing to regain much of the land they had lost, and the Russians wanting to push on and capture Constantinople and the Straits.

The Russians mobilised first and advanced into Turkish territory on 1 November 1914. This was soon halted by the Ottoman 3rd Army who went on the offensive, seeking to encircle the major Russian forces by capturing the railhead at Sarikamish [Sarıkamiş]. The Ottoman forces reached their objective despite having to advance over very difficult terrain and in blizzard conditions. They were, however, unable to capture the town. Russian reinforcements and over-extended supply lines forced the Ottomans to withdraw, something that rapidly descended to a rout. The battle of Sarikamish was a disaster from which the Ottomans struggled to recover (FO 371/2446).

In April 1915 the Armenian population of the eastern city of Van rose up against the Ottomans in response to growing violence against them by the Turkish majority. The Armenians seized the city but were soon besieged. The Russians took this opportunity to attack and eventually relieved the Armenians. Bitter fighting in the area continued for much of 1915. The uprising by the Armenians in Van served to escalate the ethnic violence that had been widespread across Turkey since the outbreak of war. From the beginning, some Armenians had supported their fellow Christians across the border, and rumours of defections and sabotage were rife among the Turks. This had led to a cycle of violence which, following the events in Van, culminated in the forced deportation of virtually the entire Armenian community in eastern Anatolia. The deportation was accompanied by widespread robbery and murder, and culminated in forced marches across the Syrian desert. The policy resulted in death on an extraordinary scale (FO 96/205 – 212, FO 371/2488).

Warfare continued on the Caucasus front, with the Russians pushing forward in 1916. They made some spectacular gains, particularly the capture of the fortress city of Erzurum. The collapse of the Russian home front meant that there was little fighting throughout 1917 and culminated in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. This not only returned to the Ottomans the significant territory which the Russians had captured in eastern Turkey, but also granted them the three provinces lost in 1878. Ottoman forces were just cementing their control over these territories when events elsewhere forced the government to seek peace terms from the Allies.

End of war and partition

Map illustrating the memorandum respecting the settlement of Turkey and the Arabian Peninsula CAB 27/37

The surrender of Bulgaria in September 1918 severed the supply lines from Germany to the Ottoman Empire and placed Allied troops within striking distance of Constantinople. With Ottoman forces in retreat on all fronts, there was no chance of meeting this new threat: leaders in Constantinople realised that they needed to sue for peace. An armistice between the Ottomans and the British was signed at Mudros and hostilities ended on 31 October 1918 (CAB 24/67/68).  The Treaty of Sèvres, signed as part of the Paris Peace Conference, divided Turkey up, with the creation of autonomous Armenian and Kurdish states and French, Italian and Greek spheres of influence (FO 93/110/81). This would have effectively ended Turkish influence in the Near East.

The Ottoman signing of the Treaty of Sèvres delegitimised the regime in the eyes of many Turks and gave considerable momentum to the Turkish nationalist movement. The Ottoman institutions were swept away and a modern Turkish state was formed under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the hero of Gallipoli. The following Turkish War of Independence saw Turkish forces defeat the Greeks in the west, as well as the nascent Armenian state in the east, to establish de facto control over Anatolia. This was eventually recognised by the international community and the boundaries of modern Turkey were established at the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 (FO 839/48).

Key documents

• Dardanelles Operations CAB 37/128/13
• Questions put to Ottoman General Staff about the Gallipoli campaign, and answers received CAB 45/236
• Foreign Office file on Turkey from 1915 (Code W44/Code 44W File 50855-53072) FO 371/2488
• Peace Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Sèvres FO 93/110/81