First World War 100

Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in 1914

Now Libya

Glossary

Overview

Cyrenaica and Tripolitania made up most of the region now known as Libya. In the period before the First World War, they fell under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Italian commerce was growing in the region and the outbreak of the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 was an attempt by Italy to seize control.

During the First World War, Italian, Turkish and German influences were all at play in the region, while the followers of the Senussi religious sect in Cyrenaica launched an attack on British forces in Egypt. At the end of the war, Italy recognised self-governing states in Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, but these arrangements collapsed and Mussolini’s Italy conducted a war of conquest which lasted until 1932.

The Italian invasion of Libya

CO 1047/571

Sketch map of Tripolitania CO 1047/571

During the 19th century, the region now known as Libya was made up of three territories, all under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Tripolitania was in the north west, Cyrenaica in the east and Fezzan in the south.

Cyrenaica and Fezzan were dominated by the Senussi religious order. By the early part of the 20th century, the order had become an influential political force among the Bedouin of the region, with around 1.5 million adherents.

Tripolitania suffered from numerous inter-tribal rivalries and was less unified (FO 371/2931).

During the 1890s, the Italian government wanted to emulate other major European powers in acquiring African colonies. Tripolitania, given its proximity to Italy, was an obvious focus for its colonial ambitions.

In the early 1900s, Italian business interests in the region grew. Local resistance to Italian influence along with expansion by the French in North Africa provoked Italy into action to protect its interests. Italy sent an ultimatum to Turkey demanding control of the region in September 1911, effectively beginning the Italo-Turkish War (FO 371/1262).

On 5 November 1911 the Italian government issued a Royal Decree, declaring its sovereignty over Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. The treaty of Lausanne that was negotiated between Italy and Turkey in October 1912 ended the war and gave Italy ostensible control, but in reality the Italian army struggled to make progress in the interior (PRO 30/57/43/38-40).

By 1914, the Italians had invaded Tripolitania, Fezzan and the Cyrenaican coast around Benghazi, but the Senussi, led by Ahmad al-Sharif since September 1912, still held the interior of Cyrenaica. Italian control was incomplete in Triploitania where Turkish and German agents remained active (FO 371/2003).

Wartime Cyrenaica and Tripolitania

ADM 344/767

Sketch of Tripoli coast titled 'Cove immediately East of Marsa Bil Agik' 1916 ADM 344/767

Local opposition to the Italian occupation remained strong and from 1914 Italian forces suffered a series of defeats in Libya. They were driven out of Fezzan and southern Tripolitania by hostile tribesmen and the Turkish government, no longer an imperial ruler, attempted to position itself as ally against them.

In November 1914, the Ottoman call for an Islamic holy war was taken up with enthusiasm by the Senussi. In March 1915, the Turkish Army general Nuri (Killigil) was sent to establish relations with the Senussi and to command Turkish troops in Tripolitania.

The following month, an Italian column was defeated at Sirte, with large stocks of arms and ammunition falling into Senussi hands. When Italy declared war on the central powers in May 1915, it had already suffered significant setbacks in North Africa (FO 371/2379).

At the same time, Turkish and German agents sought to encourage the Senussi under Ahmed al-Sharif to join an attack on British forces in Eqypt. Relations between the Senussi and Britain deteriorated in the course of 1915 as Britain blockaded the Libyan coast. The Senussi crossed into Egypt in November 1915, fighting a campaign against British forces along the coast and sending a column towards the oasis at Siwa, further inland.

They enjoyed initial successes, but British aeroplanes gave a decisive advantage and the Senussi were heavily defeated at Agagiya in February 1916 and had retreated back to Cyrenaica by the following month. The Senussi held Siwa until February 1917, when they were dislodged by a long-distance British raid from Mersa Matruh on the Egyptian coast (WO 106/672-677).

The defeat of the Senussi increased friction with the Turkish government and led to the accession of Mohammed Idris, a cousin of Ahmad al-Sharif who was favourable to improved relations with Britain. Idris engaged in long-running talks with the British and Italians, which began in March 1916 (FO 371/2269 and FO 371/2670).

Idris’s objective was to achieve control of the interior of Cyrenaica and confine Italian influence to the coast by co-operating with Britain and excluding Turkish interests. Older Senussi connections with Turkey and the British alliance with Italy made this difficult, but agreement was reached in April 1917. Italy was given sovereignty, but agreed to  the Senussi zone with access to the sea at Sollum (FO 371/2929).

In Tripolitania, where inter-tribal rivalries prevented a unified local response, Germany and Turkey remained active. The Turkish government sent Suleiman el Baruni to the region in October 1916 to organise resistance against the Italians.

The port of Misratah, controlled by the Arab leader Ramadan Suwayhili, was a centre for German and Turkish activity and a conduit for the import of German arms, in spite of a British naval blockade. Turkish forces were centred there, under the successive command of the Turkish generals Nuri, Ishak Pasha and Prince Osman Fuad. However, inter-tribal rivalries reduced their effectiveness and they were dependent upon Senussi goodwill.

This afforded Italy an opportunity to reassert its power in Tripolitania and the army again invaded the central coastal region of Tripolitania. Turkish aims were thwarted as Mohammed Idris co-operated with the Italians (FO 371/2929 and FO 371/2931).

The end of the war

MPK 1/269/4

Sketch map of Libya to illustrate suggested boundaries MPK 1/269/4

Italy was on the victorious side in the war but was weakened and unable to assert its authority in Libya through force. The Italian government, therefore, reached an agreement with Cyrenaica by which Mohammed Idris became the hereditary ruler of the state. In autumn 1918 the short-lived Republic of Tripolitania was established under the tribal leader Ramadan Suwayhili at Misratah (FO 371/3232).

Following the rise of Mussolini, Italy pursued a more aggressive policy which led to a colonial war and the eventual conquest of Libya by 1932. The First World War in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica was therefore an episode of a longer conflict with Italy which lasted from the Italo-Turkish War of 1911 through to 1932.

Key documents

ADM344-767

Sketch of coastline of 'Marsa Bil Agik' 1916 ADM344-767