Quick Search
Date range Pre 1000 1000-1399 1400-1499 1500-1599 1600-1699 1700-1749 1750-1799 1800-1849 1850-1899 1900-1949 1950-1999

Quick links

The Battle of Towton

Top of page 

The culmination of the first phase of the wars of the Roses, the Battle of Towton was one of the bloodiest ever fought on English soil. The battle pitted the forces of Henry VI, King for 40 years, but a weak ruler whose last 15 years had seen a catalogue of foreign and domestic disasters, against Edward IV, proclaimed King three weeks earlier, but whose father, Richard of York, had long been the leading opponent to Henry’s regime. With two huge armies, totalling between 50,000 and 75,000 men, the battle was to decide the fate of a kingdom.

Background

Top of page 

In 1399 Henry, Duke of Lancaster, deposed the unpopular King Richard II and made himself Henry IV. The Lancastrian dynasty ruled for 60 years, but their title was not entirely secure and other claims to the throne could be raised, especially at periods of political weakness for the crown. Between 1449 and 1453,one of the most politically disastrous five–year spans in English history, the two great areas of France in English hands, Normandy and Gascony, were lost to the French. In 1450 one of biggest popular rebellions in the Middle Ages (Cade’s revolt) resulted in execution of number of Henry VI’s leading ministers, and humiliated the English crown. Royal finances reached a new low – royal income slumped to £24,000 per year, while debts had reached £372,000. In August 1453 Henry VI had a mental collapse, and was incapable of ruling for more than a year. Richard, Duke of York, was made protector of the realm and government stabilised. Protectorate government in action.

Henry VI recovered the ability to walk and talk around Christmas 1454, after 17 months in a stupor, although whether he ever fully recovered his mental faculties may be doubted. York was left out in the cold, and his political opponents were back in power. The situation deteriorated rapidly, and on 22 May 1455 York and his allies, the Neville Earls of Salisbury and Warwick, attacked Henry’s forces at St. Albans, targeting and killing their political opponents, while swearing loyalty to the King himself. The resort to military action made later political reconciliation extremely difficult. Account of the first battle of St. Albans (1455).

York, in control of the King after his victory, engineered a second protectorate. However, his ascendancy could not endure the hostility of the Queen and some other lords and, faced with the inescapable fact of a nominally active king, York’s authority to rule in his named was undermined. An uneasy state prevailed for the next three years – the King, dominated by his wife, ruled from the Midlands, where royal support was strongest. Occasional efforts to bridge the political divide, such as the attempted reconciliation or ‘loveday’ of 1458 were ineffective. In 1459 charges were brought by the Queen against York, and this initiated the outbreak of a genuine civil war. The battle of Blore Heath (1459) was a Yorkist victory, though not decisive. It was followed by the rout of Ludford Bridge (1459) after which the Yorkists fled abroad. The Earl of Warwick, with York’s eldest son Edward and others, returned from Calais, and won the battle of Northampton in July 1460, capturing Henry VI. That autumn York returned from Ireland and laid claim to the throne, basing his claim on his descent from Edward III’s third son, Lionel Duke of Clarence. Henry VI was descended from Edward III’s fourth son, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. York’s claim to the throne. York’s claim surprised and dismayed even his closest allies, and in parliament a compromise was reached by which Henry VI would remain king for life, but Richard of York should be his successor, thereby excluding Edward, the King’s son. Clearly unworkable, the compromise lasted only three months. On 30 December 1460, York, his second son Edmund and the Earl of Salisbury challenged a superior Lancastrian force outside Sandal Castle, Wakefield, and were defeated. York’s head was impaled on the gates to the city of York.

The accession of Edward IV and the Battle of Towton

Top of page 

Queen Margaret led the Lancastrian Force south, and defeated the Earl of Warwick at the second battle of St. Albans on 17 February 1461, recovering the person of Henry VI. However, unable to force an entry into London, the Lancastrians then retreated north. Meanwhile York’s eldest son, Edward, had won a battle over Welsh Lancastrians, led by Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, at Mortimer’s Cross on 3 February. Edward returned to London and, taking up his father’s claim to the throne, was proclaimed King on 4 March. Playing on fears of the lawless Lancastrian army, Edward issued a proclamation ordering all his subjects to resist them. Edward’s proclamation.

Raising a large army, Edward advanced north to face the Lancastrians, who had fallen back to Yorkshire where they had raised an even larger force. Though difficult to estimate, the Lancastrian army was probably between 30,000 and 40,000 men while the Yorkists force was slightly smaller, perhaps between 25,000 and 35,000. Following a skirmish between advance forces at Ferrybridge, near Pontefract, which cost both sides casualties, the two armies faced each other across agricultural land just outside the small village of Towton on a snowy morning on 29 March 1461. What followed was perhaps the most brutal and bloody battle ever fought on English soil. The two sides fought all day, in horrible conditions. The arrival of fresh Yorkist troops under the Duke of Norfolk increased the pressure on the Lancastrians and, in the end, their line broke. The Yorkists pursued, killing all they could. Horrific evidence from the battlefield indicates the merciless slaughter, as does a letter from the Lord Chancellor written a few days later which records that ‘dead bodies were seen to cover an area six miles long by three broad.’ Several contemporary accounts record the figure of 28,000 dead; even if exaggerated, the slaughter was undoubtedly greater than any other English battle in the Middle Ages. Aristocratic casualties. While an historic, national event, private stories also emerge. One royal clerk, rather than just counting himself lucky to survive the battle, sought and received compensation for losses of cash and a book on the battlefield. Compensation.

Though Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou and their son Edward were not at Towton, remaining within the safety of York’s walls and thus able to escape, Edward’s victory was decisive, and forced the political nation to accept him as King. Only a breakdown of the alliance between Edward IV and Warwick, along with his powerful family, allowed the civil war to resume. In two further victories at Barnet (14 April 1471), where Warwick was killed, and Tewkesbury (4 May 1471), where the Lancastrian prince Edward was killed (Henry VI was killed shortly after in the Tower of London), Edward exterminated all serious opposition to his rule. He remained in power until his early death in 1483.

About the documents

Top of page 

Protectorate government in action – C 81/1546, no.103

A routine administrative decision taken on 7 November 1454 by the protectorate council by which William, Bishop of Ely, is allowed to resign as the king’s proctor at the papal court, and replaced by Master Vincent Clement. It is signed by the men present including the churchmen (on the left hand side) and the principal noblemen, including:

First Battle of St. Albans (1455) – C 47/37/3

A detailed contemporary account of the battle is preserved amongst the Stonor Letters, a collection of personal letters to and from members of the Stonor family. The collection is unusual in its survival. This section of the six and a half page letter describes the climax of the battle:

Transcript

Lord Clyfford kept strongly the barrers that the seyde Duke of York myght not in ony wise, w[ith] all the power that he hadde, entre ne breke into the to[w]n. The Erle of Warrewyk knowyng ther offe, toke and gadered his men to gedere and ferously brake in by the gardeyne sides, be tuene the signe of the Keye , and the sygne of the Chekkere in Howell street; and anoon as they wer wyth inne the too[w]n, sodeynly the blew up Trumpettes and sette a cry w[ith] asshout & a great voice, ‘a Warrewe, a Warrewyk, a Warreyk!’ and into that tyme the Duke of York mygh[t] never have entre into the to[w]n; and they with strong hond kept yt and myghttyly fayght to gedere and anoon forth w[ith] after the brekyng in, they sette on them manfully, and as of lordes of name were slayn, the Lord Clyfford, the duke of Somersete, the Erle of Northhumberlond...

A full transcript of the letter can be found in J. Bayley, ‘An Account of the First Battle of St. Albans’, Archaelogia, xxii (1824), pp. 519-23, reproduced in The Paston Letters, ed. J. Gairdner.

York’s claim to the throne (1460) – C 65/105, m. 3

In this section, York’s claim is made apparent in the rehearsal of his descent from Edward III. The full claim, the negotiations and the compromise agreed can be seen in Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, vol. xii, ed. A Curry and R. Horrox (Woodbridge, 2005), pp. 516-32

Transcript

Edward the third, true and undouted kyng of Englond and of Fraunce, and lord of Irelond, had issue and lefully gate Edward his first begoten son, prince of Wales, William Hatfeld secund begoten, Leonell third begoten, duc of Clarence, John of Gaunte fourth begoten, duc of Lancastre, Edmond Langley fyft goten, duc of York, Thomas Wodestok sixt goten, duc of Gloucestre, and William Wyndesore the seventh goten. The seid Edward prynce of Wales, which dyed in the lyf of the seid Edward kyng, had issue and lefully gate Richard, the which succeeded the same Edward kyng his grauntsire in roiall dignite, entitled and called Kyng Richard the secund, and died without issue. William Hatfeld the secund goten son of the seid Edward kyng dyed withoute issue. Leonell the third goten son of the same Edward kyng, duc of Clarence, had issue and lefully gate Phelippe his oonly doughter and heire; which, by the sacrament of matrymonye copled unto Edmund Mortymer erle of Marche, had issue and lefully bare Rogier Mortymer erle of Marche, hir son and heire; which Roger erle of Marche had issue and lefully gate Edmund erle of Marche, Rogier Mortymer, Anne and Alianore; which Edmund, Roger and Alianore dyed withoute issue, and the seid Anne, under the sacrament of matrymony copled unto Richard erle of Cambrigge, the son of the seid Edmund Langley, the fyft goten son of the seid kyng Edward as it is afore specified, had issue and lefully bare Richard Plantaginet, commonly called duc of York. The seid John of Gaunt, the fourth goten son of the seid Kyng Edward, and the yonger brother of the seid Leonell, had issue and lefully gate Henry erle of Derby, which incontynent after the tyme that the seid Kyng Richard resigned the corones of the seid realmes, and the seid lordship of Irelond, unrightwissely entred uppon the same, then beyng on lyve Edmund Mortymer erle of Marche, son to Roger Mortymer erle of Marche, son and heire of the said Phelippe, doughter and heire of the seid Sir Leonell, the third son of the seid Kyng Edward the third; to the which Edmund the right and title of the seid corones and lordship by lawe and custume belonged. To the which Richard duc of York, as sonne to Anne, doughter to Rogier Mortymer erle of Marche, son and heire to the seid Phelippe, doughter and heire to the seid Leonell, the third goten son of the seid Kyng Edward the third, the right, title, dignite roiall and estate of the corones of the realmes of Englond and of Fraunce, and of the lordship and land of Irelond, of right, lawe and custume apperteyneth and belongeth, afore eny issue of the seid John of Gaunt, the fourth goten son of the same Kyng Edward.

Edward IV’s proclamation (1461) – C 54/313, m. 38d

The proclamation, enrolled on the close rolls, announces Edward’s accession and calls on all his subjects to oppose the Lancastrian forces, who are described as rebels: they have committed many atrocities and have brought Scots and Frenchmen into England.

Transcript

As it is nororie and openly knowen howe that Henry duc of Excester, Henry duc of Som[er]set, Thomas, erle of Devenshire, Henry, erle of Northumb[er]land, Thomas of Roose, knyght, John of Clifford, Leon of Welles and John Neville of Neville, knyghts, with many other their complices moved and stered by the sperite of the deville not havyng any consideration or drede of god or his lawes but myschevously and dampnablye entendyng by all theyr myght and power to the subversion and utter destruccion of this oure reaume of Englond and oure trewe liegemen and subgetts with grete nombre and multitude of rebellious and riotous p[er]sones in mane[r] of Werre contrarie unto god and the comen wele of all this oure land nowe haue ronne and riden in div[er]se places and contrees of this oure reaume attempting, com[]mittyng and doing many and grete orrible treasons, rebellions, insurrections, robberies and spyles aswel of churches, houses of religion bothe of temporell godes and suche as were dedicate and hallowed unto god as bokes, chaeys, vestments and all other ornamentes cruelly also orribly and abhominably oppressing aswell wifes, wydowes, maydens and wymmen also of religion and other murdryng also sleyng and maymyng oure liegemen in such detestable wise and cruelnesse as hathe not be herde don amongs the Sarcins or Turks to any [Christian] men.

A summary of the whole proclamation can be found in The Calendar of Close Rolls, 1461-68, pp. 54-5.

Aristocratic casualties – C 60/270 m.40

Fine rolls record the issues of writs for inquisitions to be taken concerning the lands of royal tenants who had died. This first roll of Edward’s reign might be regarded as a casualty list: among the names recorded are those of the Lancastrian Lords Dacre and Welles, killed at Towton, and that of the Yorkist John Radcliff, Lord Fitzwalter, killed at Ferrybridge the day before.

A summary can be found in The Calendar of Fine Rolls, 1461-71, pp. 2-3.

Compensation claim – E 404/72/1/26

A royal warrant authorising compensation to a clerk, Richard Langport, for losses sustained at the field at ‘Shirbourne’ (Sherburn in Elmet), a village located a couple of miles from the battlefield, and the usual contemporary name for the battle. It demonstrates the personal side to a national event.

Transcript

Edward by the grace of god kyng of Englande and of Fraunce and lorde of Irlande To the Tresorer and Chamberlains of oure Eschequyer gretyng. For asmoche as oure trusty and welbeloued serv[a]unt Maister Richard Langport, clerc of oure counsaill, hath entended upon us from oure departyng oute of London northward unto oure coming ayen and that in our said s[er]vice he lost in the felde at Shirbourne xx marc and a boke price v marc and ouer that spended in the said iourney the somme of x li x s. [£10 and 10 shillings) and paid for parchement, papier, wexe and ynke xl s. whiche in alle mounte to the somme of xxix li iij s. iiijd. [£29 3 shillings 4 pence] we wol and charge you thatunto the said Maister Richard ye doo make payement or sufficient assignment of the xxix li. iij s. iiijd. Abouesaid to haue in recompense and repayement of his said losses and expenses. Yeuen under oure priuie seal atte o[ur] paleys of Westm[inster] the xxvii daye of Juyll the furst yere of oure reigne.

Further research

Top of page 

You may wish to find out more about what’s available from DocumentsOnline

Online Tutorials